FFrreeeeBBSSDD HHaannddbbooookk The FreeBSD Documentation Project February 1999 AAbbssttrraacctt Welcome to FreeBSD! This handbook covers the installation and day to day use of FFrreeeeBBSSDD RReelleeaassee 22..22..88. This manual is a wwoorrkk iinn pprrooggrreessss and is the work of many individuals. Many sections do not yet exist and some of those that do exist need to be updated. If you are interested in helping with this project, send email to the FreeBSD documentation project mailing list . The latest version of this document is always available from the FreeBSD World Wide Web server1 . It may also be downloaded in plain text2 , postscript3 , PDF or HTML4 with HTTP or gzip'd from the FreeBSD FTP server5 . or one of the numerous _m_i_r_r_o_r _s_i_t_e_s (section 25.2, page 477). You may also want to Search the Handbook6 . ____________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. FreeBSD Handbook 1 FreeBSD Handbook 2 Part I Getting Started _1_. _I_n_t_r_o_d_u_c_t_i_o_n FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite based operating system for Intel architecture (x86) based PCs. For an overview of FreeBSD, see _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _i_n _a _n_u_t_s_h_e_l_l (section 1.1, page 2). For a history of the project, read _a _b_r_i_e_f _h_i_s_t_o_r_y _o_f _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (sec tion 1.2, page 5). To see a description of the latest release, read _a_b_o_u_t _t_h_e _c_u_r_r_e_n_t _r_e_l_e_a_s_e (section 1.5, page 8). If you're interested in contributing something to the FreeBSD project (code, equipment, sacks of unmarked bills), please see about _c_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_n_g _t_o _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (section 19., page 377). _1_._1 _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _i_n _a _N_u_t_s_h_e_l_l FreeBSD is a state of the art operating system for personal computers based on the Intel CPU architecture, which includes the 386, 486 and Pentium processors (both SX and DX versions). Intel compatible CPUs from AMD and Cyrix are sup ported as well. FreeBSD provides you with many advanced features previously available only on much more expensive computers. These features include: PPrreeeemmppttiivvee mmuullttiittaasskkiinngg with dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing of the computer between applications and users. MMuullttiiuusseerr access means that many people can use a FreeBSD system simulta neously for a variety of things. System peripherals such as printers and tape drives are also properly SHARED BETWEEN ALL users on the system. Complete TTCCPP//IIPP nneettwwoorrkkiinngg including SLIP, PPP, NFS and NIS support. This means that your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other sys tems as well act as an enterprise server, providing vital functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services or putting your organiza tion on the Internet with WWW, ftp, routing and firewall (security) ser vices. MMeemmoorryy pprrootteeccttiioonn ensures that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other. One application crashing will not affect others in any way. FreeBSD is a 3322--bbiitt operating system and was designed as such from the ground up. The industry standard XX WWiinnddooww SSyysstteemm (X11R6) provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor and comes with full sources. FreeBSD Handbook 3 BBiinnaarryy ccoommppaattiibbiilliittyy with many programs built for SCO, BSDI, NetBSD, Linux and 386BSD. Hundreds of rreeaaddyy--ttoo--rruunn applications are available from the FreeBSD ppoorrttss and ppaacckkaaggeess collection. Why search the net when you can find it all right here? Thousands of additional and eeaassyy--ttoo--ppoorrtt applications available on the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications require few, if any, changes to compile. Demand paged vviirrttuuaall mmeemmoorryy and `merged VM/buffer cache' design effi ciently satisfies applications with large appetites for memory while still maintaining interactive response to other users. SShhaarreedd lliibbrraarriieess (the Unix equivalent of MS-Windows DLLs) provide for efficient use of disk space and memory. A full complement of CC, CC++++ and FFoorrttrraann development tools. Many addi tional languages for advanced research and development are also available in the ports and packages collection. SSoouurrccee ccooddee for the entire system means you have the greatest degree of control over your environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution and at the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open System? Extensive oonn--lliinnee ddooccuummeennttaattiioonn. AAnndd mmaannyy mmoorree!! FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite release from Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC operat ing systems with such features, performance and reliability, FreeBSD can offer them nnooww! The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited only by your own imagination. From software development to factory automation, inventory con trol to azimuth correction of remote satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial UNIX product then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too! FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of high quality applications developed by research centers and universities around the world, often available at little to no cost. Commercial applica tions are also available and appearing in greater numbers every day. Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applica tions in which people are currently using FreeBSD: FreeBSD Handbook 4 IInntteerrnneett SSeerrvviicceess:: The robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal platform for a variety of Internet services such as: FTP servers World Wide Web servers Gopher servers Electronic Mail servers USENET News Bulletin Board Systems And more... You can easily start out small with an inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade as your enterprise grows. EEdduuccaattiioonn:: Are you a student of computer science or a related engineering field? There is no better way of learning about operating systems, com puter architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood expe rience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely available CAD, mathe matical and graphic design packages also make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a computer is to get _o_t_h_e_r work done! RReesseeaarrcchh:: With source code for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent platform for research in operating systems as well as other branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate on ideas or shared development without having to worry about special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be discussed in open forums. NNeettwwoorrkkiinngg:: Need a new router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused 386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router with sophisti cated packet filtering capabilities. XX WWiinnddooww wwoorrkkssttaattiioonn:: FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X termi nal solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside. Unlike an X termi nal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a central server. FreeBSD can even boot "disk less", making individual workstations even cheaper and easier to adminis ter. SSooffttwwaarree DDeevveellooppmmeenntt:: The basic FreeBSD system comes with a full comple ment of development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler and debugger. FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and via anonymous ftp. See _O_b_t_a_i_n_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (section 25., page 477) for more details. FreeBSD Handbook 5 _1_._2 _A _B_r_i_e_f _H_i_s_t_o_r_y _o_f _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993, partially as an outgrowth of the "Unofficial 386BSD Patchkit" by the patchkit's last 3 coordi nators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and myself. Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of 386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the patchkit mechanism just was not capa ble of solving. Some of you may remember the early working title for the pro ject being "386BSD 0.5" or "386BSD Interim" in reference to that fact. 386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suf fering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing this interim "cleanup" snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project and without any clear indication of what would be done instead. It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained worthwhile, even with out Bill's support, and so we adopted the name "FreeBSD", coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a com pletely unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten as far, as fast, as it has today. The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD 1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the 4.3BSD-Lite ("Net/2") tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components also provided by 386BSD and the Free Soft ware Foundation. It was a fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of 1994. Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running lawsuit over the legal sta tus of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A condition of that settlement was U.C. Berke ley's concession that large parts of Net/2 were "encumbered" code and the prop erty of Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&T some time previously. What Berkeley got in return was Novell's "blessing" that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2 based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being FreeBSD 1.1.5.1. FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a FreeBSD Handbook 6 completely new and rather incomplete set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The "Lite" releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to vari ous legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until December of 1994 to make this transi tion, and in January of 1995 it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM. Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995. We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that another release along the 2.1-stable branch was merited. This was FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of mainstream development on 2.1-stable. Now in main tenance mode, only security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on this branch (RELENG_2_1_0). FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline ("-current") in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the first full release (2.2.1) was released in April, 1997. Further releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the Summer and Fall of '97, the latest being 2.2.7 which appeared in late July of '98. The first official 3.0 release appeared in October, 1998 and the last release on the 2.2 branch, 2.2.8, appeared in November, 1998. The tree branched again on Jan 20, 1999. This led to 4.0-current and a 3.x- stable branch, from which 3.1 will be released on Feb 15th, 1999. Long term development projects will continue to take place in the 4.0-current branch and SNAPshot releases of 4.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net). _1_._3 _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _P_r_o_j_e_c_t _G_o_a_l_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but we're definitely not prepared to insist on it. We believe that our first and foremost "mission" is to provide code to any and all comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one that we enthusiastically support. That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU Public License (GPL) or GNU Library Public License (GLPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software, we do, however, endeavor to replace such software with submissions under the more relaxed BSD copyright whenever possible. _1_._4 _T_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _D_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t _M_o_d_e_l _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i . FreeBSD Handbook 7 The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process, FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of people around the world, as can be seen from our _l_i_s_t _o_f _c_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_o_r_s (section 28., page 510). We are constantly on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact us at the FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list . Those who prefer to work more independently are also accommodated, and they are free to use our FTP facilities at ftp.freebsd.org to distribute their own patches or work-in-progress sources. The FreeBSD announcements mailing list is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work. Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its development process, whether working independently or in close cooperation: TThhee CCVVSS rreeppoossiittoorryy " The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by CVS (Concur rent Version System), a freely available source code control tool which comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary CVS repository resides on a machine in Concord CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the _-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t (section 18.1, page 351) and _-_s_t_a_b_l_e (section 18.2, page 354) trees which are checked out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as well. Please refer to the _S_y_n_ _c_h_r_o_n_i_z_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _s_o_u_r_c_e _t_r_e_e (section 18.3, page 356) section for more information on doing this. TThhee ccoommmmiitttteerrss lliisstt " The _c_o_m_m_i_t_t_e_r_s (section 28.2, page 511) are the people who have _w_r_i_t_e access to the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modi fications to the FreeBSD source (the term ``committer'' comes from the cvs(1) ``commit'' command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of making submissions for review by the committers list is to use the send-pr(1) command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to committers@freebsd.org. TThhee FFrreeeeBBSSDD ccoorree tteeaamm " The _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _c_o_r_e _t_e_a_m (section 28.1, page 510) would be equivalent to the board of directors if the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is the recruitment of new core team members as others move on. Most cur rent members of the core team started as committers who's addiction to the project got the better of them. FreeBSD Handbook 8 Some core team members also have specific _a_r_e_a_s _o_f _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_i_b_i_l_i_t_y (section 28.4, page 516), meaning that they are committed to ensur ing that some large portion of the system works as advertised. Note that most members of the core team are volunteers when it comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the project financially, so "commitment" should also not be misconstrued as meaning "guaranteed support." The ``board of directors'' analogy above is not actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better judgement! ;) OOuuttssiiddee ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorrss Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and bug-fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized development is to subscribe to the FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list (see _m_a_i_l_i_n_g _l_i_s_t _i_n_f_o (section 27.1, page 498)) where such things are discussed. _T_h_e _l_i_s_t (section 19.6, page 390) of those who have contributed something which made its way into our source tree is a long and growing one, so why not join it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today? :-) Providing code is not the only way of contributing to the project; for a more complete list of things that need doing, please refer to the _h_o_w _t_o _c_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e (section 19., page 377) section in this hand book. In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the convenience of the _u_s_e_r_s of FreeBSD, who are thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a sta ble operating system with a large set of coherent _a_p_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s (section 4., page 25) that the users can easily install and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing that. All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued success! _1_._5 _A_b_o_u_t _t_h_e _C_u_r_r_e_n_t _R_e_l_e_a_s_e FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite based release for Intel i386/i486/Pentium/PentiumPro/Pentium II (or compatible) based PC's. It is based primarily on software from U.C. Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhance ments from NetBSD, OpenBSD, 386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation. Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in January of 95, the performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases performance, but reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include full FreeBSD Handbook 9 NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support, dial-on-demand PPP, an improved SCSI subsystem, early ISDN support, support for FDDI and Fast Ethernet (100Mbit) adapters, improved support for the Adaptec 2940 (WIDE and narrow) and many hundreds of bug fixes. We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome! In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a new ported software collection with hundreds of commonly sought-after programs. At the end of August 1998, there were more than 1700 ports! The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games, languages, editors and almost everything in between. The entire ports collection requires approximately 26MB of storage, all ports being expressed as ``deltas'' to their original sources. This makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program you wish to install, type ``make all'' followed by ``make install'' after successful compilation and let the system do the rest. The full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved dynamically off the CDROM or a local ftp site, so you need only enough disk space to build the ports you want. (Almost) every port is also provided as a pre-compiled "package" which can be installed with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile their own ports from source. A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found in the //uussrr//sshhaarree//ddoocc directory on any machine running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following URLs: The FreeBSD handbook The FreeBSD FAQ You can also visit the master (and most frequently updated) copies at http://www.freebsd.org. The core of FreeBSD does not contain DES code which would inhibit its being exported outside the United States. There is an add-on package to the core distribution, for use only in the United States, that contains the programs that normally use DES. The auxiliary packages provided separately can be used by anyone. A freely (from outside the U.S.) exportable European distribution of DES for our non-U.S. users also exists and is described in the FreeBSD FAQ. If password security for FreeBSD is all you need, and you have no requirement for copying encrypted passwords from different hosts (Suns, DEC machines, etc) into FreeBSD password entries, then FreeBSD's MD5 based security may be all you require! We feel that our default security model is more than a match for DES, and without any messy export issues to deal with. If you are outside (or even inside) the U.S., give it a try! FreeBSD Handbook 10 _2_. _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D So, you would like to try out FreeBSD on your system? This section is a quick- start guide for what you need to do. FreeBSD can be installed from a variety of media including CD-ROM, floppy disk, magnetic tape, an MS-DOS partition and, if you have a network connection, via anonymous ftp or NFS. Regardless of the installation media you choose, you can get started by creat ing the iinnssttaallllaattiioonn ddiisskk as described below. Booting your computer into the FreeBSD installer, even if you aren't planning on installing FreeBSD right away, will provide important information about compatibility between FreeBSD and your hardware which may, in turn, dictate which installation options are even possible. It can also provide early clues to any compatibility problems which could prevent FreeBSD running on your system at all. If you plan on installing via anonymous FTP then this installation floppy is all that you will need to download and create - the installation program itself will handle any further required downloading directly (using an ethernet con nection, a modem and ppp dialup #, etc). For more information on obtaining the latest FreeBSD distributions, please see _O_b_t_a_i_n_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (section 25., page 477) in the Appendix. So, to get the show on the road, follow these steps: 1. Review the _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_e_d _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n_s (section 2.1, page 13) section of this installation guide to be sure that your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. It may be helpful to make a list of any special cards you have installed, such as SCSI controllers, Ethernet adapters or sound cards. This list should include relevant configuration parameters such as inter rupts (IRQ) and IO port addresses. 2. If you're installing FreeBSD from CDROM media then you have several dif ferent installation options: If the CD has been mastered with El Torrito boot support and your system supports direct booting from CDROM (and many older systems do _n_o_t), simply insert the CD into the drive and boot directly from it. If you're running DOS and have the proper drivers to access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the CD. This will attempt to boot into the FreeBSD installation straight from DOS (_n_o_t_e_: _Y_o_u _m_u_s_t _d_o _t_h_i_s _f_r_o_m _a_c_t_u_a_l _D_O_S _a_n_d _n_o_t _a _W_i_n_d_o_w_s _D_O_S _b_o_x). If you also want to install FreeBSD from your DOS partition (perhaps because your CDROM drive is completely unsupported by FreeBSD) then run the setup program first to copy the appropriate files from the CD to FreeBSD Handbook 11 your DOS partition, afterwards running install. If either of the two proceeding methods work then you can simply skip the rest of this section, otherwise your final option is to create a boot floppy from the floppies\boot.flp image - proceed to step 4 for instructions on how to do this. 3. If you don't have a CDROM distribution then simply download the installa tion boot disk image7 file to your hard drive, being sure to tell your browser to _s_a_v_e rather than _d_i_s_p_l_a_y the file. NNoottee:: This disk image can only be used with 1.44 megabyte 3.5 inch floppy disks. 4. Make the installation boot disk from the image file: If you are using MS-DOS then download fdimage.exe8 or get it from tools\fdimage.exe on the CDROM and then run it like so: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\boot.flp a: The _f_d_i_m_a_g_e program will format the A: drive and then copy the boot.flp image onto it (assuming that you're at the top level of a FreeBSD distribution and the floppy images live in the floppies sub directory, as is typically the case). If you are using a UNIX system to create the floppy image: % dd if=boot.flp of=_d_i_s_k___d_e_v_i_c_e where _d_i_s_k___d_e_v_i_c_e is the /dev entry for the floppy drive. On FreeBSD systems, this is /dev/rfd0 for the A: drive and /dev/rfd1 for the B: drive. 5. With the installation disk in the A: drive, reboot your computer. You should get a boot prompt something like this: ____________________ 7. 8. FreeBSD Handbook 12 >> FreeBSD BOOT ... Usage: [[[0:][wd](0,a)]/kernel][-abcCdhrsv] Use 1:sd(0,a)kernel to boot sd0 if it is BIOS drive 1 Use ? for file list or press Enter for defaults Boot: If you do _n_o_t type anything, FreeBSD will automatically boot with its default configuration after a delay of about five seconds. As FreeBSD boots, it probes your computer to determine what hardware is installed. The results of this probing is displayed on the screen. 6. When the booting process is finished, The main FreeBSD installation menu will be displayed. IIff ssoommeetthhiinngg ggooeess wwrroonngg...... Due to limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100 percent reliable. In the event that your hardware is incorrectly identi fied, or that the probing causes your computer to lock up, first check the _s_u_p_ _p_o_r_t_e_d _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n_s (section 2.1, page 13) section of this installation guide to be sure that your hardware is indeed supported by FreeBSD. If your hardware is supported, reset the computer and when the Boot: prompt comes up, type --cc. This puts FreeBSD into a configuration mode where you can supply hints about your hardware. The FreeBSD kernel on the installation disk is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses and DMA channels. If your hard ware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the --cc option at boot to tell FreeBSD where things are. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Do not disable any device you will need during installation, such as your screen (sc0). In the configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Disable device drivers for hardware not present in your system. Change the IRQ, DRQ, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. While at the config> prompt, type help for more information on the available commands. After adjusting the kernel to match how you have your hardware con figured, type quit at the config> prompt to continue booting with the new set tings. FreeBSD Handbook 13 After FreeBSD has been installed, changes made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. Even so, it is likely that you will want to build a custom kernel to optimize the per formance of your system. See _K_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) for more information on creating custom kernels. _2_._1 _S_u_p_p_o_r_t_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n_s FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA and PCI bus based PC's, ranging from 386sx to Pentium class machines (though the 386sx is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controller, network and serial cards is also provided. A minimum of four megabytes of RAM is required to run FreeBSD. To run the X Window System, eight megabytes of RAM is the recommended minimum. Following is a list of all disk controllers and Ethernet cards currently known to work with FreeBSD. Other configurations may very well work, and we have simply not received any indication of this. _2_._1_._1 _D_i_s_k _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL) WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI) IDE ATA Adaptec 1505 ISA SCSI controller Adaptec 152x series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 154x series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 174x series EISA SCSI controller in standard and enhanced mode. Adaptec 274x/284x/2940/2940U/3940 (Narrow/Wide/Twin) series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC7850 on-board SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-6360 based boards, which includes the AHA-152x and Sound Blaster SCSI cards. NNoottee:: You cannot boot from the SoundBlaster cards as they have no on-board BIOS, which is necessary for mapping the boot device into the system BIOS I/O vectors. They are perfectly usable for external tapes, CDROMs, etc, however. The same goes for any other AIC-6x60 based card without a boot ROM. Some systems DO have a boot ROM, which is generally indicated by some sort of message when the system is first powered up or reset. Check FreeBSD Handbook 14 your system/board documentation for more details. Buslogic 545S & 545c NNoottee:: that Buslogic was formerly known as "Bustek". Buslogic 445S/445c VLB SCSI controller Buslogic 742A/747S/747c EISA SCSI controller. Buslogic 946c PCI SCSI controller Buslogic 956c PCI SCSI controller NCR 53C810/53C815/53C825/53C860/53C875 PCI SCSI controller. NCR5380/NCR53400 (``ProAudio Spectrum'') SCSI controller. DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 emulation mode. UltraStor 14F/24F/34F SCSI controllers. Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers. Future Domain 8xx/950 series SCSI controllers. WD7000 SCSI controllers. With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided for SCSI-I & SCSI-II peripherals, including Disks, tape drives (including DAT) and CD ROM drives. The following CD-ROM type systems are supported at this time: SoundBlaster SCSI and ProAudio Spectrum SCSI (cd) Mitsumi (all models) proprietary interface (mcd) Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative) CR-562/CR-563 proprietary interface (matcd) Sony proprietary interface (scd) ATAPI IDE interface (experimental and should be considered ALPHA quality!) (wcd) _2_._1_._2 _E_t_h_e_r_n_e_t _c_a_r_d_s Allied-Telesis AT1700 and RE2000 cards SMC Elite 16 WD8013 Ethernet interface, and most other WD8003E, WD8003EBT, WD8003W, WD8013W, WD8003S, WD8003SBT and WD8013EBT based clones. SMC Elite Ultra and 9432TX based cards are also supported. DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205) FreeBSD Handbook 15 DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and DE422) DEC DC21040/DC21041/DC21140 based NICs: ASUS PCI-L101-TB Accton ENI1203 Cogent EM960PCI Compex CPXPCI/32C D-Link DE-530 DEC DE435 Danpex EN-9400P3 JCIS Condor JC1260 Kingston KNE100TX Linksys EtherPCI Mylex LNP101 SMC EtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332) SMC EtherPower (Model 8432) SMC EtherPower (2) Zynx ZX314 Zynx ZX342 DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs Fujitsu FMV-181 and FMV-182 Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A Intel EtherExpress Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B 100Mbit. Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit) Isolink 4110 (8 bit) Lucent WaveLAN wireless networking interface. Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 ethernet interface. FreeBSD Handbook 16 3Com 3C501 cards 3Com 3C503 Etherlink II 3Com 3c505 Etherlink/+ 3Com 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP 3Com 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA) Etherlink III 3Com 3C590, 3C595 Etherlink III 3Com 3C90x cards. HP PC Lan Plus (27247B and 27252A) Toshiba ethernet cards PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National Semiconductor are also sup ported. _N_o_t_e_: FreeBSD does not currently support PnP (plug-n-play) features present on some ethernet cards. If your card has PnP and is giving you problems, try dis abling its PnP features. _2_._1_._3 _M_i_s_c_e_l_l_a_n_e_o_u_s _d_e_v_i_c_e_s AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ. ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ. BOCA IOAT66 6 port serial card using shared IRQ. BOCA 2016 16 port serial card using shared IRQ. Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board. STB 4 port card using shared IRQ. SDL Communications Riscom/8 Serial Board. SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci sync serial cards. Digiboard Sync/570i high-speed sync serial card. Decision-Computer Intl. "Eight-Serial" 8 port serial cards using shared IRQ. Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum, Gravis Ultra Sound, Gravis UltraSound MAX and Roland MPU-401 sound cards. Matrox Meteor video frame grabber. FreeBSD Handbook 17 Creative Labs Video spigot frame grabber. Omnimedia Talisman frame grabber. Brooktree BT848 chip based frame grabbers. X-10 power controllers. PC joystick and speaker. FreeBSD does not currently support IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. _2_._2 _P_r_e_p_a_r_i_n_g _f_o_r _t_h_e _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_a_t_i_o_n There are a number of different methods by which FreeBSD can be installed. The following describes what preparation needs to be done for each type. _2_._2_._1 _B_e_f_o_r_e _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _f_r_o_m _C_D_R_O_M If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, then please skip to _M_S_-_D_O_S _P_r_e_p_a_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 2.2.3, page 19). There is not a lot of preparatory work that needs to be done to successfully install from one of Walnut Creek's FreeBSD CDROMs (other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say for certain as we have no hand or say in how they are created). You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS using Walnut Creek's supplied ``install.bat'' batch file or you can make a boot floppy with the ``makeflp.bat'' command. [NOTE: If you are run ning FreeBSD 2.1-RELEASE and have an IDE CDROM, use the inst_ide.bat or atapi flp.bat batch files instead]. For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type ``view''. This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all the available options. If you are creating the boot floppy from a UNIX machine, see _t_h_e _b_e_g_i_n_n_i_n_g _o_f _t_h_i_s _g_u_i_d_e (section 2., page 10) for examples. of how to create the boot floppy. Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be able to select CDROM as the media type in the Media menu and load the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of installation media should be required. After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted from the hard disk, you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing: mount /cdrom Before removing the CD again, also note that it is necessary to first type: umount /cdrom. Do not just remove it from the drive! SSppeecciiaall nnoottee:: Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default system configuration automatically during the install (whether or not you actually use it as the installation media). FreeBSD Handbook 18 Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw command): ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Anyone with network connectivity to your machine (and permission to log into it) can now chose a Media type of FTP and type in: ftp://_y_o_u_r _m_a_c_h_i_n_e after picking ``Other'' in the ftp sites menu. _2_._2_._2 _B_e_f_o_r_e _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _f_r_o_m _F_l_o_p_p_y If you must install from floppy disks, either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you enjoy doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the install. You will need, at minimum, as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing these floppies under DOS, then THESE floppies *must* be formatted using the MS- DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use the Windows File Manager format command. Do _n_o_t trust Factory Preformatted floppies! Format them again yourself, just to make sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why I am taking such spe cial care to mention it here! If you are creating the floppies from another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the `disklabel' and `newfs' commands to put a UFS filesys tem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy disk) illustrates: fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/rfd0 (Use "fd0.1200" and "floppy5" for 5.25" 1.2MB disks). Then you can mount and write to them like any other file system. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files onto them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your flop pies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have got all the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: aa::\\bbiinn\\bbiinn..aaaa, aa::\\bbiinn\\bbiinn..aabb, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen of the install, select ``Floppy'' and you will be prompted for the rest. FreeBSD Handbook 19 _2_._2_._3 _B_e_f_o_r_e _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _f_r_o_m _a _M_S_-_D_O_S _p_a_r_t_i_t_i_o_n To prepare for installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory called C:\FREEBSD. The directory tree structure of the CDROM must be partially reproduced within this directory so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command. For example, to prepare for a minimal installa tion of FreeBSD: C> MD C:\FREEBSD C> XCOPY /S E:\BIN C:\FREEBSD\BIN\ C> XCOPY /S E:\MANPAGES C:\FREEBSD\MANPAGES\ assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. For as many `DISTS' you wish to install from MS-DOS (and you have free space for), install each one under C:\FREEBSD - the BIN dist is only the minimal requirement. _2_._2_._4 _B_e_f_o_r_e _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _f_r_o_m _Q_I_C_/_S_C_S_I _T_a_p_e Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an on-line install using FTP or a CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tar'ed onto the tape, so after getting all of the files for distribution you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape with a com mand like: cd /freebsd/distdir tar cvf /dev/rwt0 (or /dev/rst0) dist1 .. dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the ffuullll contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non- random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. NNoottee:: When going to do the installation, the tape must be in the drive _b_e_f_o_r_e booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. _2_._2_._5 _B_e_f_o_r_e _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _o_v_e_r _a _n_e_t_w_o_r_k You can do network installations over 3 types of communications links: Serial port SLIP or PPP Parallel port PLIP (laplink cable) FreeBSD Handbook 20 Ethernet A standard ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA). SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly soon in the installation process. You will need to know how to dial your ISP using the ``AT commands'' specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. If you're using PAP or CHAP, you'll need to type the necessary ``set authname'' and ``set authkey'' commands before typing ``term''. Refer to the user-ppp _h_a_n_d_b_o_o_k (section 15.1, page 294) and FAQ9 entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0R or later) machine is avail able, you might also consider installing over a ``laplink'' parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typi cally possible over a serial line (up to 50k/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an ethernet adaptor is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC ethernet cards, a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in _S_u_p_p_o_r_t_e_d _H_a_r_d_w_a_r_e (section 2.1, page 13). If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in _b_e_f_o_r_e the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. Your system administra tor can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator _f_i_r_s_t before trying this type of installa tion. Once you have a network link of some sort working, the installation can con tinue over NFS or FTP. _2_._2_._5_._1 _P_r_e_p_a_r_i_n_g _f_o_r _N_F_S _i_n_s_t_a_l_l_a_t_i_o_n NFS installation is fairly straight-forward: Simply copy the FreeBSD distribu tion files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selec tion at it. ____________________ 9. FreeBSD Handbook 21 If this server supports only ``privileged port'' access (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 2.2.8 distribution directory lives on: zziiggggyy:://uussrr//aarrcchhiivvee//ssttuuffff//FFrreeeeBBSSDD Then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of //uussrr//aarrcchhiivvee//ssttuuffff//FFrreeeeBBSSDD, not just //uussrr or //uussrr//aarrcchhiivvee//ssttuuffff. In FreeBSD's //eettcc//eexxppoorrttss file, this is controlled by the ``-alldirs'' option. Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting `Permis sion Denied' messages from the server then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. _2_._2_._5_._2 _P_r_e_p_a_r_i_n_g _f_o_r _F_T_P _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_a_t_i_o_n FTP installation may be done from any mirror site containing a reasonably up- to-date version of FreeBSD 2.2.8. A full menu of reasonable choices from almost anywhere in the world is provided by the FTP site menu. If you are installing from some other FTP site not listed in this menu, or you are having troubles getting your name server configured properly, you can also specify your own URL by selecting the ``Other'' choice in that menu. A URL can also be a direct IP address, so the following would work in the absence of a name server: ftp://165.113.121.81/pub/FreeBSD/2.2.8-RELEASE There are two FTP installation modes you can use: FTP Active For all FTP transfers, use ``Active'' mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older ftp servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive For all FTP transfers, use ``Passive'' mode. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. NNoottee:: Active and passive modes are not the same as a `proxy' connec tion, where a proxy FTP server is listening and forwarding FTP requests! For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after an @-sign. The proxy server then 'fakes' the real server. An example: Say you want to install from ftp.freebsd.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1234. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to FreeBSD Handbook 22 ftp@ftp.freebsd.org, and the password to your e-mail address. As your instal lation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy support it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.freebsd.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, allowing you to install from _that_ machine (which fetch the files from ftp.freebsd.org as your installation requests them). _2_._3 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D Once you have taken note of the appropriate preinstallation steps, you should be able to install FreeBSD without any further trouble. Should this not be true, then you may wish to go back and re-read the relevant preparation section above for the installation media type you are trying to use, perhaps there is a helpful hint there that you missed the first time? If you are having hardware trouble, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide provided on the boot floppy for a list of possible solutions. The FreeBSD boot floppy contains all the on-line documentation you should need to be able to navigate through an installation and if it does not then we would like to know what you found most confusing. Send your comments to the FreeBSD documentation project mailing list . It is the objec tive of the FreeBSD installation program (sysinstall) to be self-documenting enough that painful ``step-by-step'' guides are no longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that objective, but that is the objective! Meanwhile, you may also find the following ``typical installation sequence'' to be helpful: 1. Boot the boot floppy. After a boot sequence which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your hardware, you should be pre sented with a menu of initial choices. If the floppy does not boot at all, or the boot hangs at some stage, go read the Q&A section of the Hardware Guide for possible causes. 2. Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on the menu sys tem and general navigation. If you have not used this menu system before then PLEASE read this thoroughly! 3. Select the Options item and set any special preferences you may have. 4. Select a Novice, Custom or Express install, depending on whether or not you would like the installation to help you through a typical installa tion, give you a high degree of control over each step of the installa tion or simply whizz through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before then the Novice installation method is most recommended. 5. The final configuration menu choice allows you to further configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven access to various system FreeBSD Handbook 23 defaults. Some items, like networking, may be especially important if you did a CDROM/Tape/Floppy installation and have not yet configured your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up on the network when you first reboot from the hard disk. _2_._4 _M_S_-_D_O_S _U_s_e_r_'_s _Q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s _a_n_d _A_n_s_w_e_r_s Many FreeBSD users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. HHeellpp!! II hhaavvee nnoo ssppaaccee!! DDoo II nneeeedd ttoo ddeelleettee eevveerryytthhiinngg ffiirrsstt?? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for FreeBSD's installation, all is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or on the various FreeBSD ftp sites, to be quite useful. FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserv ing the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition, using the DOS 6.xx DEFRAG utility or the Norton Disk tools, then run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the _D_i_s_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n_s menu for an estimation of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. CCaann II uussee ccoommpprreesssseedd MMSS--DDOOSS ffiilleessyysstteemmss ffrroomm FFrreeeeBBSSDD?? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncom pressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/dblspaced file!). DDoo nnoott rreemmoovvee tthhaatt ffiillee!! You will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed MS-DOS primary partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. CCaann II mmoouunntt mmyy MMSS--DDOOSS eexxtteennddeedd ppaarrttiittiioonnss?? Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end of the other ``slices'' in FreeBSD, e.g. your D: drive might be /dev/sd0s5, your E: drive /dev/sd0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ``wd'' for ``sd'' appropriately. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would mount any other DOS drive, e.g.: mount -t msdos /dev/sd0s5 /dos_d CCaann II rruunn MMSS--DDOOSS bbiinnaarriieess uunnddeerr FFrreeeeBBSSDD?? BSDI has donated their DOS emulator to the BSD world and this has been ported to FreeBSD. There is also a (technically) nice application available in the _T_h_e _P_o_r_t_s FreeBSD Handbook 24 _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (section 4., page 25) called pcemu which allows you to run many basic MS-DOS text-mode binaries by entirely emulating an 8088 CPU. _3_. _U_n_i_x _B_a_s_i_c_s _3_._1 _T_h_e _O_n_l_i_n_e _M_a_n_u_a_l The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of _m_a_n _p_a_g_e_s. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explain ing the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be view with the mmaann command. Use of the mmaann command is simple: mmaann _c_o_m_m_a_n_d where _c_o_m_m_a_n_d is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about llss command type: % mmaann llss The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: 1. User commands 2. System calls and error numbers 3. Functions in the C libraries 4. Device drivers 5. File formats 6. Games and other diversions 7. Miscellaneous information 8. System maintenance and operation commands in some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the on- line manual. For example, there is a cchhmmoodd user command and a cchhmmoodd(()) system call. In this case, you can tell the mmaann command which one you want by speci fying the section: % mmaann 11 cchhmmoodd which will display the manual page for the user command cchhmmoodd. References to a particular section of the on-line manual are traditionally placed in parenthe sis in written documentation, so cchhmmoodd((11)) refers to the cchhmmoodd user command and cchhmmoodd((22)) refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use mmaann to FreeBSD Handbook 25 search for keywords in the command _d_e_s_c_r_i_p_t_i_o_n_s by using the --kk switch: % mmaann --kk mmaaiill With this command you will be presented with a list of commands that have the keyword `mail' in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the aapprrooppooss command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not even have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do a % ccdd //uussrr//bbiinn;; mmaann --ff ** or % ccdd //uussrr//bbiinn;; wwhhaattiiss ** which does the same thing. _3_._2 _G_N_U _I_n_f_o _F_i_l_e_s FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called _i_n_f_o files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the info(1) command, simply type: % iinnffoo For a brief introduction, type hh. For a quick command reference, type ??. _4_. _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _A_p_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s_: _T_h_e _P_o_r_t_s _c_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_a_m_e_s _R_a_y_n_a_r_d . The FreeBSD Ports collection allows you to compile and install a very wide range of applications with a minimum of effort. For all the hype about open standards, getting a program to work on different versions of Unix in the real world can be a tedious and tricky business, as anyone who has tried it will know. You may be lucky enough to find that the program you want will compile cleanly on your system, install itself in all the right places and run flawlessly ``out of the box'', but this is unfortunately rather rare. With most programs, you will find yourself doing a fair bit of head-scratching, and there are quite a few programs that will result in prema ture greying, or even chronic alopecia... Some software distributions have attacked this problem by providing configura tion scripts. Some of these are very clever, but they have an unfortunate FreeBSD Handbook 26 tendency to triumphantly announce that your system is something you have never heard of and then ask you lots of questions that sound like a final exam in system-level Unix programming (``Does your system's gethitlist function return a const pointer to a fromboz or a pointer to a const fromboz? Do you have Foonix style unacceptable exception handling? And if not, why not?''). Fortunately, with the Ports collection, all the hard work involved has already been done, and you can just type 'make install' and get a working program. _4_._1 _W_h_y _H_a_v_e _a _P_o_r_t_s _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n_? The base FreeBSD system comes with a very wide range of tools and system utili ties, but a lot of popular programs are not in the base system, for good rea sons:- 1. Programs that some people cannot live without and other people cannot stand, such as a certain Lisp-based editor. 2. Programs which are too specialised to put in the base system (CAD, databases). 3. Programs which fall into the ``I must have a look at that when I get a spare minute'' category, rather than system-critical ones (some lan guages, perhaps). 4. Programs that are far too much fun to be supplied with a serious operat ing system like FreeBSD ;-) 5. However many programs you put in the base system, people will always want more, and a line has to be drawn somewhere (otherwise FreeBSD distribu tions would become absolutely enormous). Obviously it would be unreasonable to expect everyone to port their favourite programs by hand (not to mention a tremendous amount of duplicated work), so the FreeBSD Project came up with an ingenious way of using standard tools that would automate the process. Incidentally, this is an excellent illustration of how ``the Unix way'' works in practice by combining a set of simple but very flexible tools into something very powerful. _4_._2 _H_o_w _D_o_e_s _t_h_e _P_o_r_t_s _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n _W_o_r_k_? Programs are typically distributed on the Internet as a _t_a_r_b_a_l_l (section 4.6, page 33) consisting of a Makefile and the source code for the program and usu ally some instructions (which are unfortunately not always as instructive as they could be), with perhaps a configuration script. The standard scenario is that you FTP down the tarball, extract it somewhere, glance through the instructions, make any changes that seem necessary, run the configure script to set things up and use the standard `make' program to com pile and install the program from the source. FreeBSD ports still use the tarball mechanism, but use a _s_k_e_l_e_t_o_n (section 4.4, FreeBSD Handbook 27 page 30) to hold the 'knowledge' of how to get the program working on FreeBSD, rather than expecting the user to be able to work it out. They also supply their own customised _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e (section 4.4.1, page 30), so that almost every port can be built in the same way. If you look at a port skeleton (either on your FreeBSD system or the FTP site) and expect to find all sorts of pointy-headed rocket science lurking there, you may be disappointed by the one or two rather unexciting-looking files and directories you find there. (We will discuss in a minute how to go about _G_e_t_ _t_i_n_g _a _p_o_r_t (section 4.3, page 28)). ``How on earth can this do anything?'' I hear you cry. ``There is no source code there!'' Fear not, gentle reader, all will become clear (hopefully). Let's see what happens if we try and install a port. I have chosen `ElectricFence', a useful tool for developers, as the skeleton is more straightforward than most. _N_o_t_e if you are trying this at home, you will need to be root. # cd /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence # make install >> Checksum OK for ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz. ===> Extracting for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Patching for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Configuring for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Building for ElectricFence-2.0.5 [lots of compiler output...] ===> Installing for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Warning: your umask is "0002". If this is not desired, set it to an appropriate value and install this port again by ``make reinstall''. install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444 /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.a /usr/local/lib install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444 /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.3 /usr/local/man/man3 ===> Compressing manual pages for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Registering installation for ElectricFence-2.0.5 To avoid confusing the issue, I have completely removed the build output. If you tried this yourself, you may well have got something like this at the start:- # make install >> ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://ftp.doc.ic.ac.uk/Mirrors/sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/lang/c/. The `make' program has noticed that you did not have a local copy of the source code and tried to FTP it down so it could get the job done. I already had the source handy in my example, so it did not need to fetch it. Let's go through this and see what the `make' program was doing. FreeBSD Handbook 28 1. Locate the source code _t_a_r_b_a_l_l_. (section 4.6, page 33) If it is not available locally, try to grab it from an FTP site. 2. Run a _c_h_e_c_k_s_u_m (section 4.6, page 33) test on the tarball to make sure it has not been tampered with, accidentally truncated, downloaded in ASCII mode, struck by neutrinos while in transit, etc. 3. Extract the tarball into a temporary work directory. 4. Apply any _p_a_t_c_h_e_s (section 4.6, page 33) needed to get the source to compile and run under FreeBSD. 5. Run any configuration script required by the build process and correctly answer any questions it asks. 6. (Finally!) Compile the code. 7. Install the program executable and other supporting files, man pages, etc. under the /usr/local hierarchy, where they will not get mixed up with system programs. This also makes sure that all the ports you install will go in the same place, instead of being flung all over your system. 8. Register the installation in a database. This means that, if you do not like the program, you can cleanly _r_e_m_o_v_e (section 4.6, page 36) all traces of it from your system. Scroll up to the make output and see if you can match these steps to it. And if you were not impressed before, you should be by now! _4_._3 _G_e_t_t_i_n_g _a _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _P_o_r_t There are two ways of getting hold of the FreeBSD port for a program. One requires a _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_D_R_O_M (section 4.3.1, page 28), the other involves using an _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t _C_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n_. (section 4.3.2, page 29) _4_._3_._1 _C_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _p_o_r_t_s _f_r_o_m _C_D_R_O_M Assuming that your _F_r_e_e_B_S_D CDROM is in the drive and mounted on /cdrom (and the mount point *must* be /cdrom), you should then be able to build ports just as you normally do and the port collection's built in search path should find the tarballs in file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/ (if they exist there) rather than downloading them over the net. Another way of doing this, if you want to just use the port skeletons on the CDROM, is to set these variables in /etc/make.conf: PORTSDIR= /cdrom/ports DISTDIR= /tmp/distfiles WRKDIRPREFIX= /tmp (substitute "/tmp" for any place you have enough free space). Then, just cd to the appropriate subdirectory under "/cdrom/ports" and type "make install" as usual. WRKDIRPREFIX will cause the port to be built under /tmp/cdrom/ports; FreeBSD Handbook 29 for instance, games/oneko will be built under /tmp/cdrom/ports/games/oneko. Note that there are some ports for which we cannot provide the original source in the CDROM due to licensing limitations. In that case, you will need to look at the section on _C_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _p_o_r_t_s _u_s_i_n_g _a_n _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n_. (section 4.3.2, page 29) _4_._3_._2 _C_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _p_o_r_t_s _f_r_o_m _t_h_e _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t If you do not have a CDROM, or you want to make sure you get the very latest version of the port you want, you will need to download the _s_k_e_l_e_t_o_n (section 4.4, page 30) for the port. Now this might sound like rather a fiddly job full of pitfalls, but it is actually very easy. First, if you are running a release version of FreeBSD, make sure you get the appropriate ``upgrade kit'' for your release from the ports page. These pack ages include files that have been updated since the release that you may need to compile new ports. The key to the skeletons is that the FreeBSD FTP server can create on-the-fly _t_a_r_b_a_l_l_s (section 4.6, page 33) for you. Here is how it works, with the gnats program in the databases directory as an example (the bits in square brackets are comments. Do not type them in if you are trying this yourself!):- # cd /usr/ports # mkdir databases # cd databases # ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as `ftp' and give your email address when asked for a password. Remember to use binary (also known as image) mode!] > cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/ports/databases > get gnats.tar [tars up the gnats skeleton for us] > quit # tar xf gnats.tar [extract the gnats skeleton] # cd gnats # make install [build and install gnats] What happened here? We connected to the FTP server in the usual way and went to its databases sub-directory. When we gave it the command `get gnats.tar', the FTP server _t_a_r_r_e_d (section 4.6, page 33) up the gnats directory for us. We then extracted the gnats skeleton and went into the gnats directory to build the port. As we explained _e_a_r_l_i_e_r (section 4.2, page 27), the make process noticed we did not have a copy of the source locally, so it fetched one before extracting, patching and building it. Let's try something more ambitious now. Instead of getting a single port skele ton, let's get a whole sub-directory, for example all the database skeletons in the ports collection. It looks almost the same:- FreeBSD Handbook 30 # cd /usr/ports # ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as `ftp' and give your email address when asked for a password. Remember to use binary (also known as image) mode!] > cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/ports > get databases.tar [tars up the databases directory for us] > quit # tar xf databases.tar [extract all the database skeletons] # cd databases # make install [build and install all the database ports] With half a dozen straightforward commands, we have now got a set of database programs on our FreeBSD machine! All we did that was different from getting a single port skeleton and building it was that we got a whole directory at once, and compiled everything in it at once. Pretty impressive, no? If you expect to be installing many ports, it is probably worth downloading all the ports directories. _4_._4 _S_k_e_l_e_t_o_n_s A team of compulsive hackers who have forgotten to eat in a frantic attempt to make a deadline? Something unpleasant lurking in the FreeBSD attic? No, a skeleton here is a minimal framework that supplies everything needed to make the ports magic work. _4_._4_._1 _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e The most important component of a skeleton is the Makefile. This contains vari ous statements that specify how the port should be compiled and installed. Here is the Makefile for ElectricFence:- # New ports collection makefile for: Electric Fence # Version required: 2.0.5 # Date created: 13 November 1997 # Whom: jraynard # # $Id: ports.sgml,v 1.35 1999/01/20 11:51:51 asami Exp $ # DISTNAME= ElectricFence-2.0.5 CATEGORIES= devel MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= devel/lang/c MAINTAINER= jraynard@freebsd.org MAN3= libefence.3 do-install: ${INSTALL_DATA} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.a ${PREFIX}/lib ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.3 ${PREFIX}/man/man3 .include FreeBSD Handbook 31 The lines beginning with a '#' sign are comments for the benefit of human read ers (as in most Unix script files). `DISTNAME' specifies the name of the _t_a_r_b_a_l_l (section 4.6, page 33), but with out the extension. `CATEGORIES' states what kind of program this is. In this case, a utility for developers. See the _c_a_t_e_g_o_r_i_e_s (section 4.7.11, page 75) section of this hand book for a complete list. `MASTER_SITES' is the URL(s) of the master FTP site, which is used to retrieve the _t_a_r_b_a_l_l (section 4.6, page 33) if it is not available on the local system. This is a site which is regarded as reputable, and is normally the one from which the program is officially distributed (in so far as any software is 'officially' distributed on the Internet). `MAINTAINER' is the email address of the person who is responsible for updating the skeleton if, for example a new version of the program comes out. Skipping over the next few lines for a minute, the line .include says that the other statements and commands needed for this port are in a stan dard file called `bsd.port.mk'. As these are the same for all ports, there is no point in duplicating them all over the place, so they are kept in a single standard file. This is probably not the place to go into a detailed examination of how Make files work; suffice it to say that the line starting with ``MAN3'' ensures that the ElectricFence man page is compressed after installation, to help conserve your precious disk space. The original port did not provide an ``install'' target, so the three lines from ``do-install'' ensure that the files produced by this port are placed in the correct destination. _4_._4_._2 _T_h_e _f_i_l_e_s _d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y The file containing the _c_h_e_c_k_s_u_m (section 4.6, page 33) for the port is called 'md5', after the MD5 algorithm used for ports checksums. It lives in a direc tory with the slightly confusing name of 'files'. This directory can also contain other miscellaneous files that are required by the port and do not belong anywhere else. _4_._4_._3 _T_h_e _p_a_t_c_h_e_s _d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y This directory contains the _p_a_t_c_h_e_s (section 4.6, page 33) needed to make everything work properly under FreeBSD. _4_._4_._4 _T_h_e _p_k_g _d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y This program contains three quite useful files:- FreeBSD Handbook 32 COMMENT - a one-line description of the program. DESCR - a more detailed description. PLIST - a list of all the files that will be created when the program is installed. _4_._5 _W_h_a_t _t_o _d_o _w_h_e_n _a _p_o_r_t _d_o_e_s _n_o_t _w_o_r_k_. Oh. You can do one of four (4) things : 1. Fix it yourself. Technical details on how ports work can be found in _P_o_r_t_i_n_g _a_p_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s_. (section 4.7, page 38) 2. Gripe. This is done by e-mail *ONLY*! Send such e-mail to the FreeBSD ports mailing list and please include the name/version of the port, where you got both the port source & dist file(s) from, and what the text of the error was. 3. Forget it. This is the easiest for most - very few of the programs in ports can be classified as `essential'! 4. Grab the pre-compiled package from a ftp server. The ``master'' package collection is on FreeBSD's FTP server in the packages directory, though check your local mirror first, please! These are more likely to work (on the whole) than trying to compile from source and a lot faster besides! Use the pkg_add(1) program to install a package file on your system. _4_._6 _S_o_m_e _Q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s _a_n_d _A_n_s_w_e_r_s Q. I thought this was going to be a discussion about modems??! A. Ah. You must be thinking of the serial ports on the back of your com puter. We are using `port' here to mean the result of `porting' a program from one version of Unix to another. (It is an unfortunate bad habit of computer people to use the same word to refer to several completely dif ferent things). Q. I thought you were supposed to use packages to install extra programs? A. Yes, that is usually the quickest and easiest way of doing it. Q. So why bother with ports then? A. Several reasons:- 1. The licensing conditions on some software distributions require that they be distributed as source code, not binaries. 2. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. FreeBSD Handbook 33 3. If you have some local patches, you will need the source to add them yourself. 4. You might have opinions on how a program should be compiled that differ from the person who did the package - some people have strong views on what optimisation setting should be used, whether to build debug versions and then strip them or not, etc. etc. 5. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack around with it, borrow from it (licence terms per mitting, of course!) and so on. 6. If you ain't got the source, it ain't software! ;-) Q. What is a patch? A. A patch is a small (usually) file that specifies how to go from one version of a file to another. It contains text that says, in effect, things like ``delete line 23'', ``add these two lines after line 468'' or ``change line 197 to this''. Also known as a `diff', since it is generated by a program of that name. Q. What is all this about tarballs? A. It is a file ending in .tar or .tar.gz (with variations like .tar.Z, or even .tgz if you are trying to squeeze the names into a DOS filesystem). Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived into a single file (.tar) and optionally compressed (.gz). This technique was originally used for _Tape _A_Rchives (hence the name `tar'), but it is a widely used way of distributing program source code around the Internet. You can see what files are in them, or even extract them yourself, by using the standard Unix tar program, which comes with the base FreeBSD system, like this:- tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz # View contents of foobar.tar.gz tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz # Extract contents into the current directory tar tvf foobar.tar # View contents of foobar.tar tar xvf foobar.tar # Extract contents into the current directory Q. And a checksum? A. It is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any of the characters change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the dif ference. (In practice, it is done in a more complicated way to spot prob lems like position-swapping, which will not show up with a simplistic addition). Q. I did what you said for _c_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _p_o_r_t_s _f_r_o_m _a _C_D_R_O_M (section 4.3.1, page 28) and it worked great until I tried to install the kermit port:- FreeBSD Handbook 34 # make install >> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/. Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM? A. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it by hand - sorry! The reason why you got all those error messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the sites above, you can re-start the process (try and choose the nearest site to you, though, to save your time and the Internet's bandwidth). Q. I did that, but when I tried to put it into /usr/ports/distfiles I got some error about not having permission. A. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in /usr/ports/distfiles, but you will not be able to copy anything there because it is sym-linked to the CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere else by doing DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it make install Q. Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything in /usr/ports? My system administrator says I must put everything under /u/peo ple/guests/wurzburger, but it does not seem to work. A. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell the ports mecha nism to use different directories. For instance, make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports install will compile the port in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and install everything under /usr/local. make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /u/peo ple/guests/wurzburger/local. And of course make PORTSDIR=.../ports PREFIX=.../local install will combine the two (it is too long to fit on the page if I write it in full, but I am sure you get the idea). If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you install a port (and to be honest, who would?), it is a good idea to put these variables into your environment. FreeBSD Handbook 35 Q. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have all the tar balls handy on my system so I do not have to wait for a download every time I install a port. Is there an easy way to get them all at once? A. To get every single tarball for the ports collection, do # cd /usr/ports # make fetch For all the tarballs for a single ports directory, do # cd /usr/ports/directory # make fetch and for just one port - well, I think you have guessed already. Q. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than ones listed in the MASTER_SITES? A. Yes. If you know, for example, ftp.FreeBSD.ORG is much closer than sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as following example. # cd /usr/ports/directory # make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE=ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch Q. I want to know what files make is going to need before it tries to pull them down. A. 'make fetch-list' will display a list of the files needed for a port. Q. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but it is a bit tiresome having to watch it and hit control-C every time. A. Doing 'make extract' will stop it after it has fetched and extracted the source code. Q. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able to stop it com piling until I have had a chance to see if my patches worked properly. Is there something like 'make extract', but for patches? A. Yep, 'make patch' is what you want. You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your efforts! Q. I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs. Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with the right settings? A. Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the -O2 option could result in buggy code unless you used the -fno-strength-reduce option as well. (Most of the ports don't use -O2). You _s_h_o_u_l_d be able to specify the compiler options used by something like FreeBSD Handbook 36 make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' install or by editing /etc/make.conf, but unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to do 'make configure', then go into the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles. Q. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available? A. Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports. If you would like to search the ports collection for a keyword, you can do that too. For example, you can find ports relevant to the LISP programming language using: cd /usr/ports make search key=lisp Q. I went to install the 'foo' port but the system suddenly stopped com piling it and starting compiling the 'bar' port. What's going on? A. The 'foo' port needs something that is supplied with 'bar' - for instance, if 'foo' uses graphics, 'bar' might have a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or 'bar' might be a tool that is needed to compile the 'foo' port. Q. I installed the grizzle program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put all the files. Any clues? A. No problem, just do pkg_delete grizzle-6.5 Q. Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to use that com mand. You do not seriously expect me to remember that, do you?? A. Not at all, you can find it out by doing pkg_info -a | grep grizzle And it will tell you:- Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up arcade game. Q. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and delete things? A. Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly certain you will not need the source again, there is no point in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this is # cd /usr/ports # make clean FreeBSD Handbook 37 which will go through all the ports subdirectories and delete everything except the skeletons for each port. Q. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or whatever you called them in the distfiles directory. Can I delete those as well? A. Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those can go as well. Q. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with. Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go? A. Just do # cd /usr/ports # make install Q. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three and a half ports. Did something go wrong? A. No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg ``Do you want to print on A4 or US let ter sized paper?'') and they need to have someone on hand to answer them. Q. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the monitor. Any bet ter ideas? A. OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local park:- # cd /usr/ports # make -DBATCH install This will install every port that does _n_o_t require user input. Then, when you come back, do # cd /usr/ports # make -DIS_INTERACTIVE install to finish the job. Q. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your ports collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around our sites? A. No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for your changes:- # cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble # make extract # cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] # cd ../.. # make package FreeBSD Handbook 38 Q. This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to find out how you did it. What is the secret? A. Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the bsd.ports.mk and bsd.ports.subdir.mk files in your makefiles directory. (Note: readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are advised not to follow this link...) _4_._7 _M_a_k_i_n_g _a _p_o_r_t _y_o_u_r_s_e_l_f _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d , Gary Palmer , Satoshi Asami , David O'Brien and Tim Vanderhoek . 28 August 1996. So, now you are interested in making your own port? Great! :) What follows are some guidelines for creating a new port for FreeBSD. The bulk of the work is done by /usr/share/mk/bsd.port.mk, which all port Makefiles include. Please refer to that file for more details on the inner workings of the ports collection. Even if you don't hack Makefiles daily, it is well com mented, and you will still gain much knowledge from it. Note: Only a fraction of the overridable variables (${..}) are mentioned in this document. Most (if not all) are documented at the start of bsd.port.mk. This file uses a non-standard tab setting. Emacs and Vim should recognize the setting on loading the file. vi or ex can be set to using the correct value by typing `:set tabstop=4' once the file has been loaded. _4_._7_._1 _Q_u_i_c_k _P_o_r_t_i_n_g This section tells you how to do a quick port. In many cases, it is not enough, but we will see. First, get the original tarball and put it into ${DISTDIR}, which defaults to /usr/ports/distfiles. Note: The following assumes that the software compiled out-of-the-box, i.e., there was absolutely no change required for the port to work on your FreeBSD box. If you needed to change something, you will have to refer to the next section too. _4_._7_._1_._1 _W_r_i_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e The minimal Makefile would look something like this: FreeBSD Handbook 39 # New ports collection makefile for: oneko # Version required: 1.1b # Date created: 5 December 1994 # Whom: asami # # $Id$ # DISTNAME= oneko-1.1b CATEGORIES= games MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/ MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.ORG MAN1= oneko.1 MANCOMPRESSED= yes USE_IMAKE= yes .include See if you can figure it out. Do not worry about the contents of the $Id$ line, it will be filled in automatically by CVS when the port is imported to our main ports tree. You can find a more detailed example in the _s_a_m_p_l_e _M_a_k_e_ _f_i_l_e (section 4.7.9, page 72) section. _4_._7_._1_._2 _W_r_i_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _d_e_s_c_r_i_p_t_i_o_n _f_i_l_e_s There are three description files that are required for any port, whether they actually package or not. They are COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, and reside in the pkg subdirectory. _4_._7_._1_._2_._1 _C_O_M_M_E_N_T This is the one-line description of the port. _P_l_e_a_s_e _d_o _n_o_t _i_n_c_l_u_d_e _t_h_e _p_a_c_k_ _a_g_e _n_a_m_e _(_o_r _v_e_r_s_i_o_n _n_u_m_b_e_r _o_f _t_h_e _s_o_f_t_w_a_r_e_) _i_n _t_h_e _c_o_m_m_e_n_t_. Here is an exam ple: A cat chasing a mouse all over the screen. _4_._7_._1_._2_._2 _D_E_S_C_R This is a longer description of the port. One to a few paragraphs concisely explaining what the port does is sufficient. This is _n_o_t a manual or an in- depth description on how to use or compile the port! _P_l_e_a_s_e _b_e _c_a_r_e_f_u_l _i_f _y_o_u _a_r_e _c_o_p_y_i_n_g _f_r_o_m _t_h_e README or manpage; too often they are not a concise description of the port or are in an awkward format (e.g. manpages have justi fied spacing). If the ported software has an official WWW homepage, you should list it here. It is recommended that you sign your name at the end of this file, as in: FreeBSD Handbook 40 This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a poor mouse all over the screen. : (etc.) http://www.oneko.org/ - Satoshi asami@cs.berkeley.edu _4_._7_._1_._2_._3 _P_L_I_S_T This file lists all the files installed by the port. It is also called the `packing list' because the package is generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames are relative to the installation prefix (usually /usr/local or /usr/X11R6). If you are using the MANx variables (as you should be), do not list any manpages here. Here is a small example: bin/oneko lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm @dirrm lib/X11/oneko Refer to the pkg_create(1) man page for details on the packing list. Note that you should list all the files, but not the name directories, in the list. Also, if the port creates directories for itself during installation, make sure to add @dirrm lines as necessary to remove them when the port is deleted. It is recommended you keep all the filenames in this file sorted alphabeti cally. It will make verifying the changes when you upgrade the port much eas ier. _4_._7_._1_._3 _C_r_e_a_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _c_h_e_c_k_s_u_m _f_i_l_e Just type `make makesum'. The ports make rules will automatically generate the file files/md5. _4_._7_._1_._4 _T_e_s_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _p_o_r_t You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what you want it to do, including packaging up the port. These are the important points you need to verify: PLIST does not contain anything not installed by your port PLIST contains everything that is installed by your port your port can be installed multiple times using the reinstall target FreeBSD Handbook 41 your port _c_l_e_a_n_s _u_p (section 4.7.8.13, page 70) after itself upon dein stall The recommended ordering of tests is: 1. make install 2. make package 3. make deinstall 4. pkg_add `make package-name` 5. make deinstall 6. make reinstall 7. make package Make sure there aren't any warnings issued in any of the package and deinstall stages. After step 3, check to see if all the new directories are correctly deleted. Also, try using the software after step 4, to ensure that it works correctly when installed from a package. _4_._7_._1_._5 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _p_o_r_t _w_i_t_h _p_o_r_t_l_i_n_t Please use portlint to see if your port conforms to our guidelines. The portlint program is part of the ports collection. In particular, you may want to check if the _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e (section 4.7.9, page 72) is in the right shape and the _p_a_c_k_a_g_e (section 4.7.10, page 74) is named appropriately. _4_._7_._1_._6 _S_u_b_m_i_t_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _p_o_r_t First, make sure you have read the _D_o_'_s _a_n_d _D_o_n_t_'_s (section 4.7.8, page 63) section. Now that you are happy with your port, the only thing remaining is to put it in the main FreeBSD ports tree and make everybody else happy about it too. We do not need your work/ directory or the pkgname.tgz package, so delete them now. Next, simply include the output of `shar `find port_dir`' in a bug report and send it with the send-pr(1) program (see _B_u_g _R_e_p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _C_o_m_m_e_n_t_a_r_y (section 19.2.1, page 381) for more information about send-pr). If the uncom pressed port is larger than 20KB, you should compress it into a tarfile and use uuencode(1) before including it in the bug report (uuencoded tarfiles are acceptable even if the report is smaller than 20KB but are not preferred). Be sure to classify the bug report as category `ports' and class `change-request'. (Do not mark the report `confidential'!) One more time, _d_o _n_o_t _i_n_c_l_u_d_e _t_h_e _o_r_i_g_i_n_a_l _s_o_u_r_c_e _d_i_s_t_f_i_l_e_, _t_h_e work/ direc tory, or the package you built with `make package'! Note: in the past, we asked you to upload new port submissions in our ftp site (ftp.freebsd.org). This is no longer recommended as read access is turned off on that incoming directory of that site due to the large amount of pirated FreeBSD Handbook 42 software showing up there. :< We will look at your port, get back to you if necessary, and put it in the tree. Your name will also appear in the list of `Additional FreeBSD contribu tors' on the FreeBSD Handbook and other files. Isn't that great?!? :) _4_._7_._2 _S_l_o_w _P_o_r_t_i_n_g Ok, so it was not that simple, and the port required some modifications to get it to work. In this section, we will explain, step by step, how to modify it to get it to work with the ports paradigm. _4_._7_._2_._1 _H_o_w _t_h_i_n_g_s _w_o_r_k First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when the user first types `make' in your port's directory, and you may find that having bsd.port.mk in another window while you read this really helps to understand it. But do not worry if you do not really understand what bsd.port.mk is doing, not many people do... :> 1. The fetch target is run. The fetch target is responsible for making sure that the tarball exists locally in ${DISTDIR}. If fetch cannot find the required files in ${DISTDIR} it will look up the URL ${MASTER_SITES}, which is set in the Makefile, as well as our main ftp site at ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/, where we put sanc tioned distfiles as backup. It will then attempt to fetch the named dis tribution file with ${FETCH}, assuming that the requesting site has direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save the file in ${DISTDIR} for future use and proceed. 2. The extract target is run. It looks for your port's distribution file (typically a gzip'd tarball) in ${DISTDIR} and unpacks it into a tempo rary subdirectory specified by ${WRKDIR} (defaults to work). 3. The patch target is run. First, any patches defined in ${PATCHFILES} are applied. Second, if any patches are found in ${PATCHDIR} (defaults to the patches subdirectory), they are applied at this time in alphabetical order. 4. The configure target is run. This can do any one of many different things. 1. If it exists, scripts/configure is run. 2. If ${HAS_CONFIGURE} or ${GNU_CONFIGURE} is set, ${WRKSRC}/configure is run. 3. If ${USE_IMAKE} is set, ${XMKMF} (default: `xmkmf -a') is run. 5. The build target is run. This is responsible for descending into the port's private working directory (${WRKSRC}) and building it. If FreeBSD Handbook 43 ${USE_GMAKE} is set, GNU make will be used, otherwise the system make will be used. The above are the default actions. In addition, you can define targets `pre-' or `post-', or put scripts with those names, in the scripts subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default actions are done. For example, if you have a post-extract target defined in your Makefile, and a file pre-build in the scripts subdirectory, the post-extract target will be called after the regular extraction actions, and the pre-build script will be executed before the default build rules are done. It is recommended that you use Makefile targets if the actions are simple enough, because it will be eas ier for someone to figure out what kind of non-default action the port requires. The default actions are done by the bsd.port.mk targets `do-'. For example, the commands to extract a port are in the target `do-extract'. If you are not happy with the default target, you can fix it by redefining the `do-' target in your Makefile. Note that the `main' targets (e.g., extract, configure, etc.) do nothing more than make sure all the stages up to that one are completed and call the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended to be changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix do-extract, but never ever touch extract! Now that you understand what goes on when the user types `make', let us go through the recommended steps to create the perfect port. _4_._7_._2_._2 _G_e_t_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _o_r_i_g_i_n_a_l _s_o_u_r_c_e_s Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed tarball (.tar.gz or .tar.Z) and copy it into ${DISTDIR}. Always use _m_a_i_n_s_t_r_e_a_m sources when and where you can. If you cannot find a ftp/http site that is well-connected to the net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly non-standard formats, you might want to put a copy on a reliable ftp or http server that you control (e.g., your home page). Make sure you set MASTER_SITES to reflect your choice. If you cannot find somewhere convenient and reliable to put the distfile (note that if you are a FreeBSD committer, you can just put it in the public_html directory on freefall), we can `house' it ourselves by putting it on ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/LOCAL_PORTS/ as the last resort. Please refer to this location as ${MASTER_SITE_LOCAL}. Send mail to the FreeBSD ports mailing list if you are not sure what to do. If your port's distfile changes all the time for no good reason, consider putting the distfile in your home page and listing it as the first MAS TER_SITES. This will prevent users from getting `checksum mismatch' errors, FreeBSD Handbook 44 and also reduce the workload of maintainers of our ftp site. Also, if there is only one master site for the port, it is recommended that you house a backup at your site and list it as the second MASTER_SITES. If your port requires some additional `patches' that are available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in ${DISTDIR}. Do not worry if they come from a site other than where you got the main source tarball, we have a way to handle these situations (see the description of _$_{_P_A_T_C_H_F_I_L_E_S_} (section 4.7.3.6, page 47) below). _4_._7_._2_._3 _M_o_d_i_f_y_i_n_g _t_h_e _p_o_r_t Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and make whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile properly under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep _c_a_r_e_f_u_l _t_r_a_c_k of everything you do, as you will be automating the process shortly. Everything, including the deletion, addition or modifica tion of files should be doable using an automated script or patch file when your port is finished. If your port requires significant user interaction/customization to compile or install, you should take a look at one of Larry Wall's classic Configure scripts and perhaps do something similar yourself. The goal of the new ports collection is to make each port as `plug-and-play' as possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk space. Note: Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and other files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD ports collection are assumed to be cov ered by the standard BSD copyright conditions. _4_._7_._2_._4 _P_a_t_c_h_i_n_g In the preparation of the port, files that have been added or changed can be picked up with a recursive diff for later feeding to patch. Each set of patches you wish to apply should be collected into a file named `patch-' where denotes the sequence in which the patches will be applied -- these are done in _a_l_p_h_a_b_e_t_i_c_a_l _o_r_d_e_r, thus `aa' first, `ab' second and so on. These files should be stored in ${PATCHDIR}, from where they will be automatically applied. All patches should be relative to ${WRKSRC} (generally the directory your port's tarball unpacks itself into, that being where the build is done). To make fixes and upgrades easier, you should avoid having more than one patch fix the same file (e.g., patch-aa and patch-ab both changing ${WRKSRC}/foo bar.c). _4_._7_._2_._5 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g Include any additional customization commands to your configure script and save it in the `scripts' subdirectory. As mentioned above, you can also do this as Makefile targets and/or scripts with the name pre-configure or post-configure. _4_._7_._2_._6 _H_a_n_d_l_i_n_g _u_s_e_r _i_n_p_u_t If your port requires user input to build, configure or install, then set IS_INTERACTIVE in your Makefile. This will allow `overnight builds' to skip your port if the user sets the variable BATCH in his environment (and if the FreeBSD Handbook 45 user sets the variable INTERACTIVE, then _o_n_l_y those ports requiring interaction are built). It is also recommended that if there are reasonable default answers to the questions, you check the PACKAGE_BUILDING variable and turn off the interactive script when it is set. This will allow us to build the packages for CD-ROMs and ftp. _4_._7_._3 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we suggest that you look at existing examples before starting. Also, there is a _s_a_m_p_l_e _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e (sec tion 4.7.9, page 72) in this handbook, so take a look and please follow the ordering of variables and sections in that template to make your port easier for others to read. Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you design your new Make file: _4_._7_._3_._1 _T_h_e _o_r_i_g_i_n_a_l _s_o_u_r_c_e Does it live in ${DISTDIR} as a standard gzip'd tarball? If so, you can go on to the next step. If not, you should look at overriding any of the ${EXTRACT_CMD}, ${EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS}, ${EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS}, ${EXTRACT_SUFX}, or ${DISTFILES} variables, depending on how alien a format your port's distri bution file is. (The most common case is `EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z', when the tar ball is condensed by regular compress, not gzip.) In the worst case, you can simply create your own `do-extract' target to over ride the default, though this should be rarely, if ever, necessary. _4_._7_._3_._2 _D_I_S_T_N_A_M_E You should set ${DISTNAME} to be the base name of your port. The default rules expect the distribution file list (${DISTFILES}) to be named ${DIST NAME}${EXTRACT_SUFX} which, if it is a normal tarball, is going to be something like: foozolix-1.0.tar.gz for a setting of `DISTNAME=foozolix-1.0'. The default rules also expect the tarball(s) to extract into a subdirectory called work/${DISTNAME}, e.g. work/foozolix-1.0/ All this behavior can be overridden, of course; it simply represents the most common time-saving defaults. For a port requiring multiple distribution files, simply set ${DISTFILES} explicitly. If only a subset of ${DISTFILES} are actual extractable archives, then set them up in ${EXTRACT_ONLY}, which will FreeBSD Handbook 46 override the ${DISTFILES} list when it comes to extraction, and the rest will be just left in ${DISTDIR} for later use. _4_._7_._3_._3 _P_K_G_N_A_M_E If ${DISTNAME} does not conform to our _g_u_i_d_e_l_i_n_e_s _f_o_r _a _g_o_o_d _p_a_c_k_a_g_e _n_a_m_e (section 4.7.10, page 74), you should set the ${PKGNAME} variable to something better. See the abovementioned guideline for more details. _4_._7_._3_._4 _C_A_T_E_G_O_R_I_E_S When a package is created, it is put under /usr/ports/packages/All and links are made from one or more subdirectories of /usr/ports/packages. The names of these subdirectories are specified by the variable ${CATEGORIES}. It is intended to make life easier for the user when he is wading through the pile of packages on the ftp site or the CD-ROM. Please take a look at the existing _c_a_t_e_g_o_r_i_e_s (section 4.7.11, page 75) and pick the ones that are suitable for your port. This list also determines where in the ports tree the port is imported. If you put more than one category here, it is assumed that the port files will be put in the subdirectory with the name in the first category. See the _c_a_t_e_g_o_r_i_e_s (section 4.7.11, page 75) section for more discussion about how to pick the right categories. If your port truly belongs to something that is different from all the existing ones, you can even create a new category name. In that case, please send mail to the FreeBSD ports mailing list to propose a new category. Note that there is no error checking for category names; `make package' will happily create a new directory if you mistype the category name, so be careful! _4_._7_._3_._5 _M_A_S_T_E_R___S_I_T_E_S Record the directory part of the ftp/http-URL pointing at the original tarball in ${MASTER_SITES}. Do not forget the trailing slash (/)! The make macros will try to use this specification for grabbing the distribution file with ${FETCH} if they cannot find it already on the system. It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this list, preferably from different continents. This will safeguard against wide-area network problems, and we are even planning to add support for automatically determining the clos est master site and fetching from there! If the original tarball is part of one of the following popular archives: X- contrib, GNU, Perl CPAN, TeX CTAN, or Linux Sunsite, you refer to those sites in an easy compact form using MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB, MASTER_SITE_GNU, MAS TER_SITE_PERL_CPAN, MASTER_SITE_TEX_CTAN, and MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE. Simply set MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the path with in the archive. Here is an example: MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications FreeBSD Handbook 47 The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_* variables in /etc/make.conf to override our choices, and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives instead. _4_._7_._3_._6 _P_A_T_C_H_F_I_L_E_S If your port requires some additional patches that are available by ftp or http, set ${PATCHFILES} to the names of the files and ${PATCH_SITES} to the URL of the directory that contains them (the format is the same as ${MAS TER_SITES}). If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree (i.e., ${WKRSRC}) because it contains some extra pathnames, set ${PATCH_DIST_STRIP} accordingly. For instance, if all the pathnames in the patch have an extra `foozolix-1.0/' in front of the filenames, then set `PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1'. Do not worry if the patches are compressed, they will be decompressed automati cally if the filenames end with `.gz' or `.Z'. If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you can't just use ${PATCHFILES}. If that is the case, add the name and the location of the patch tarball to ${DISTFILES} and ${MASTER_SITES}. Then, from the pre-patch target, apply the patch either by running the patch command from there, or copying the patch file into the ${PATCHDIR} directory and calling it patch-. (Note the tarball will have been extracted along side the regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly extract it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball.) If you do the latter, take extra care not to overwrite something that already exists in that directory. Also do not forget to add a command to remove the copied patch in the pre-clean target. _4_._7_._3_._7 _M_A_I_N_T_A_I_N_E_R Set your mail-address here. Please. :) For detailed description of the responsibility of maintainers, refer to _M_A_I_N_ _T_A_I_N_E_R _o_n _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e_s (section 20.1, page 433) section. _4_._7_._3_._8 _D_e_p_e_n_d_e_n_c_i_e_s Many ports depend on other ports. There are five variables that you can use to ensure that all the required bits will be on the user's machine. There are also some pre-supported dependency variables for common cases, plus a few more to control the behavior of dependencies. _4_._7_._3_._8_._1 _L_I_B___D_E_P_E_N_D_S This variable specifies the shared libraries this port depends on. It is a list of `lib:dir[:target]' tuples where lib is the name of the shared library, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and target is the target to call in that directory. For example, LIB_DEPENDS= jpeg.9:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:install FreeBSD Handbook 48 will check for a shared jpeg library with major version 9, and descend into the graphics/jpeg subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The `:target' part can be omitted if it is equal to ${DEPENDS_TAR GET} (which defaults to `install'). Note that the lib part is an argument given to `ldconfig -r | grep -wF'. There shall be no regular expressions in this variable. The dependency is checked twice, once from within the extract target and then from within the install target. (This is to ensure that the library is avail able even if the port is installed on a different machine from where it was built.) Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. _4_._7_._3_._8_._2 _R_U_N___D_E_P_E_N_D_S This variable specifies executables or files this port depends on during run- time. It is a list of `path:dir[:target]' tuples where path is the name of the executable or file, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and `target' is the target to call in that directory. If path starts with a slash (/), it is treated as a file or directory and its existence is tested with `test -e'; otherwise, it is assumed to be an executable, and `which -s' is used to determine if the program exists in the user's search path. For example, RUN_DEPENDS= ${PREFIX}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \ wish8.0:${PORTSDIR}/x11-toolkits/tk80 will check if the file or directory `/usr/local/etc/innd' exists, and build and install it from the news/inn subdirectory of the ports tree if it is not found. It will also see if an executable called `wish8.0' is in your search path, and descend into the x11-toolkits/tk80 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. (Note that in this case, `innd' is actually an executable; if an executable is in a place that is not expected to be in a nor mal user's search path, you should use the full pathname.) The dependency is checked from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. The `:target' part can be omit ted if it is the same as ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. _4_._7_._3_._8_._3 _B_U_I_L_D___D_E_P_E_N_D_S This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to build. Like RUN_DEPENDS, it is a list of `path:dir[:target]' tuples. For example, BUILD_DEPENDS= unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check for an executable called `unzip', and descend into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it FreeBSD Handbook 49 is not found. Note that `build' here means everything from extracting to compilation. The dependency is checked from within the extract target. The `:target' part can be omitted if it is the same as ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. _4_._7_._3_._8_._4 _F_E_T_C_H___D_E_P_E_N_D_S This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of `path:dir[:target]' pairs. For example, FETCH_DEPENDS= ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2 will check for an executable called `ncftp2', and descend into the net/ncftp2 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The dependency is checked from within the fetch target. The `:target' part can be omitted if it is the same as ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. _4_._7_._3_._8_._5 _D_E_P_E_N_D_S If there is a dependency that does not fall into either of the above four cate gories, or your port requires to have the source of the other port extracted in addition to having them installed, then use this variable. This is a list of `dir[:target]', as there is nothing to check, unlike the previous four. The `:target' part can be omitted if it is the same as ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. _4_._7_._3_._8_._6 _C_o_m_m_o_n _d_e_p_e_n_d_e_n_c_y _v_a_r_i_a_b_l_e_s Define `USE_XLIB=yes' if your port requires the X Window System to be installed (it is implied by USE_IMAKE). Define `USE_GMAKE=yes' if your port requires GNU make instead of BSD make. Define `USE_AUTOCONF=yes' if your port requires GNU autoconf to be run. Define `USE_QT=yes' if your port uses the latest qt toolkit. Use `USE_PERL5=yes' if your port requires version 5 of the perl lan guage. (The last is especially important since some versions of FreeBSD has perl5 as part of the base system while others don't.) _4_._7_._3_._8_._7 _N_o_t_e_s _o_n _d_e_p_e_n_d_e_n_c_i_e_s As mentioned above, the default target to call when a dependency is required is ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. It defaults to `install'. This is a user variable; it is never defined in a port's Makefile. If your port needs a special way to handle a dependency, use the `:target' part of the *_DEPENDS variables instead of redefining ${DEPENDS_TARGET}. When you type `make clean', its dependencies are automatically cleaned too. If you do not wish this to happen, define the variable NOCLEANDEPENDS in your environment. To depend on another port unconditionally, it is customary to use the string `nonexistent' as the first field of BUILD_DEPENDS or RUN_DEPENDS. Use this only when you need the to get to the source of the other port. You can often save compilation time by specifying the target too. For instance, FreeBSD Handbook 50 BUILD_DEPENDS= /nonexistent:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:extract will always descend to the JPEG port and extract it. Do not use `DEPENDS' unless there is no other way the behavior you want can be accomplished. It will cause the other port to be always built (and installed, by default), and the dependency will go into the package as well. If this is really what you need, I recommend you write it as BUILD_DEPENDS and RUN_DEPENDS instead -- at least the intention will be clear. _4_._7_._3_._9 _B_u_i_l_d_i_n_g _m_e_c_h_a_n_i_s_m_s If your package uses GNU make, set `USE_GMAKE=yes'. If your package uses con figure, set `HAS_CONFIGURE=yes'. If your package uses GNU configure, set `GNU_CONFIGURE=yes' (this implies HAS_CONFIGURE). If you want to give some extra arguments to configure (the default argument list `--prefix=${PREFIX}' for GNU configure and empty for non-GNU configure), set those extra arguments in ${CONFIGURE_ARGS}. If your package uses GNU autoconf, set `USE_AUTO CONF=yes'. This implies GNU_CONFIGURE, and will cause autoconf to be run before configure. If your package is an X application that creates Makefiles from Imakefiles using imake, then set `USE_IMAKE=yes'. This will cause the configure stage to automatically do an xmkmf -a. If the `-a' flag is a problem for your port, set `XMKMF=xmkmf'. If the port uses imake but does not understand the `install.man' target, `NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes' should be set. In addition, the author of the original port should be shot. :> If your port's source Makefile has something else than `all' as the main build target, set ${ALL_TARGET} accordingly. Same goes for `install' and ${INSTALL_TARGET}. _4_._7_._4 _S_p_e_c_i_a_l _C_o_n_s_i_d_e_r_a_t_i_o_n_s There are some more things you have to take into account when you create a port. This section explains the most common of those. _4_._7_._4_._1 _l_d_c_o_n_f_i_g If your port installs a shared library, add a post-install target to your Make file that runs `${LDCONFIG} -m' on the directory where the new library is installed (usually ${PREFIX}/lib) to register it into the shared library cache. Also, add a matching `@exec /sbin/ldconfig -m'/`@unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R' pair to your pkg/PLIST file so that a user who installed the package can start using the shared library immediately and deinstallation will not cause the system to still believe the library is there. These lines should immediately follow the line for the shared library itself, as in: lib/libtcl80.so.1 @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m %D/lib @unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R FreeBSD Handbook 51 Never, ever, _e_v_e_r add a line that says `ldconfig' without any arguments to your Makefile or pkg/PLIST. This will reset the shared library cache to the con tents of /usr/lib only, and will royally screw up the user's machine ("Help, xinit does not run anymore after I install this port!"). Anybody who does this will be shot and cut into 65,536 pieces by a rusty knife and have his liver chopped out by a bunch of crows and will eternally rot to death in the deepest bowels of hell (not necessarily in that order).... _4_._7_._4_._2 _E_L_F _s_u_p_p_o_r_t Since FreeBSD moved to ELF with the 3.0-RELEASE, we need to convert many ports that build shared libraries to support ELF. Complicating this task is that a 3.0 system can run as both ELF and a.out, and we wish to unoffically support the 2.2 as long as possible. Below are the guidelines on how to convert a.out only ports to support both a.out and ELF compilation. Some part of this list is only applicable during the conversion, but will be left here for awhile for reference in case you have come across some old port you wish to upgrade. _4_._7_._4_._2_._1 _M_o_v_i_n_g _a_._o_u_t _l_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s _o_u_t _o_f _t_h_e _w_a_y A.out libraries should be moved out of /usr/local/lib and similar to an `aout' subdirectory. (If you don't move them out of the way, ELF ports will happily overwrite a.out libraries.) The `move-aout-libs' target in the 3.0-CURRENT src/Makefile (called from `aout-to-elf') will do this for you. It will only move a.out libs so it is safe to call it on a system with both ELF and a.out libs in the standard directories. _4_._7_._4_._2_._2 _F_o_r_m_a_t The ports tree will build packages in the format the machine is in. This means a.out for 2.2 and a.out or ELF for 3.0 depending on what `objformat` returns. Also, once users move a.out libraries to a subdirectory, building a.out libraries will be unsupported. (I.e., it may still work if you know what you are doing, but you are on your own.) Note: if a port only works for a.out, set BROKEN_ELF to a string describing the reason why. Such ports will be skipped during a build on an ELF system. _4_._7_._4_._2_._3 _P_O_R_T_O_B_J_F_O_R_M_A_T bsd.port.mk will set PORTOBJFORMAT to `aout' or `elf' and export it in the environments CONFIGURE_ENV, SCRIPTS_ENV and MAKE_ENV. (It's always going to be `aout' in 2.2-STABLE). It is also passed to PLIST_SUB as `PORTOBJFORMAT=${POR TOBJFORMAT}'. (See comment on ldconfig lines below.) The variable is set using this line: PORTOBJFORMAT!= test -x /usr/bin/objformat && /usr/bin/objformat || echo aout in bsd.port.mk. FreeBSD Handbook 52 Ports' make processes should use this variable to decide what to do. However, if the port's configure script already automatically detects an ELF system, it is not necessary to refer to PORTOBJFORMAT. _4_._7_._4_._2_._4 _B_u_i_l_d_i_n_g _s_h_a_r_e_d _l_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s The following are differences in handling shared libraries for a.out and ELF. Shared library versions An ELF shared library should be called "libfoo.so.M" where M is the single version number, and an a.out library should be called "lib foo.so.M.N" where M is the major version and N is the the minor version number. Do not mix those; _n_e_v_e_r install an ELF shared library called "libfoo.so.N.M" or an a.out shared library (or sym link) called "libfoo.so.N". Linker command lines Assuming `cc -shared' is used rather than `ld' directly, the only difference is that you need to add `-Wl,-soname,libfoo.so.M' on the command line for ELF. You need to install a symlink libfoo.so -> libfoo.so.N to make ELF linkers happy. Since it should be listed in PLIST too, and it won't hurt in the a.out case (some ports even require the link for dynamic loading), you should just make this link regardless of the setting of PORTOBJFORMAT. _4_._7_._4_._2_._5 _L_I_B___D_E_P_E_N_D_S All port Makefiles are edited to remove minor numbers from LIB_DEPENDS, and also to have the regexp support removed. (E.g., `foo\\.1\\.\\(33|40\\)' -> `foo.2'.) They will be matched using `grep -wF'. _4_._7_._4_._2_._6 _P_L_I_S_T PLIST should contain the short (ELF) shlib names if the a.out minor number is zero, and the long (a.out) names otherwise. bsd.port.mk will automatically add `.0' to the end of short shlib lines if PORTOBJFORMAT equals aout, and will delete the minor number from long shlib names if PORTOBJFORMAT equals elf. In cases where you really need to install shlibs with two versions on an ELF system or those with one version on an a.out system (for instance, ports that install compatibility libraries for other operating systems), define the vari able NO_FILTER_SHLIBS. This will turn off the editing of PLIST mentioned in the previous paragraph. _4_._7_._4_._2_._7 _l_d_c_o_n_f_i_g The ldconfig line in Makefiles should read: ${SETENV} OBJFORMAT=${PORTOBJFORMAT} ${LDCONFIG} -m .... and in PLIST: FreeBSD Handbook 53 @exec /usr/bin/env OBJFORMAT=%%PORTOBJFORMAT%% /sbin/ldconfig -m ... @unexec /usr/bin/env OBJFORMAT=%%PORTOBJFORMAT%% /sbin/ldconfig -R This is to ensure that the correct ldconfig will be called depending on the format of the package, not the default format of the system. _4_._7_._4_._3 _M_A_S_T_E_R_D_I_R If your port needs to build slightly different versions of packages by having a variable (for instance, resolution or paper size) take different values, create one subdirectory per package to make it easier for users to see what to do, but try to share as many files as possible between ports. Typically you only need a very short Makefile in all but one of the directories if you use variables cleverly. In the sole Makefiles, you can use ${MASTERDIR} to specify the directory where the rest of the files are. Also, use a variable as part of _P_K_G_N_A_M_E (section 4.7.10, page 74) so the packages will have different names. This will be best demonstrated by an example. This is part of japanese/xdvi300/Makefile: : PKGNAME= ja-xdvi${RESOLUTION}-17 : # default RESOLUTION?= 300 .if ${RESOLUTION} != 118 && ${RESOLUTION} != 240 && \ ${RESOLUTION} != 300 && ${RESOLUTION} != 400 @${ECHO} "Error: invalid value for RESOLUTION: \"${RESOLUTION}\"" @${ECHO} "Possible values are: 118, 240, 300 (default) and 400." @${FALSE} .endif japanese/xdvi300 also has all the regular patches, package files, etc. If you type `make' there, it will take the default value for the resolution (300) and build the port normally. As for other resolutions, this is the _e_n_t_i_r_e xdvi118/Makefile (minus the com ments): RESOLUTION= 118 MASTERDIR= ${.CURDIR}/../xdvi300 .include "${MASTERDIR}/Makefile" (xdvi240/Makefile and xdvi400/Makefile are similar). The ${MASTERDIR} defini tion tells bsd.port.mk that the regular set of subdirectories like ${PATCHDIR} and ${PKGDIR} are to be found under xdvi300. The RESOLUTION=118 line will override the RESOLUTION?=300 line in xdvi300/Makefile and the port will be built with resolution set to 118. FreeBSD Handbook 54 _4_._7_._4_._4 _S_h_a_r_e_d _l_i_b_r_a_r_y _v_e_r_s_i_o_n_s First, please read our _p_o_l_i_c_y _o_n _s_h_a_r_e_d _l_i_b_r_a_r_y _v_e_r_s_i_o_n_i_n_g (section 20.3, page 436) to understand what to do with shared library versions in general. Do not blindly assume software authors know what they are doing; many of them do not. It is very important that these details are carefully considered, as we have quite a unique situation where we are trying to have dozens of potentially incompatible software pairs co-exist. Careless port imports have caused great trouble regarding shared libraries in the past (ever wondered why the port jpeg-6b has a shared library version of `9.0'?). If in doubt, send a message to the FreeBSD ports mailing list . Most of the time, your job ends by determining the right shared library version and making appropriate patches to implement it. However, if there is a port which is a different version of the same software already in the tree, the situation is much more complex. In short, the FreeBSD implementation does not allow the user to specify to the linker which version of shared library to link against (the linker will always pick the highest num bered version). This means, if there is a libfoo.so.3.2 and libfoo.so.4.0 in the system, there is no way to tell the linker to link a particular application to libfoo.so.3.2. It is essentially completely overshadowed in terms of compi lation-time linkage. In this case, the only solution is to rename the `base' part of the shared library. For instance, change libfoo.so.4.0 to lib foo4.so.1.0 so both version 3.2 and 4.0 can be linked from other ports. _4_._7_._4_._5 _M_a_n_p_a_g_e_s The MAN[1-9LN] variables will automatically add any manpages to pkg/PLIST (this means you must _n_o_t list manpages in the PLIST -- see _g_e_n_e_r_a_t_i_n_g _P_L_I_S_T (section 4.7.5.4, page 61) for more). It also makes the install stage automatically compress or uncompress manpages depending on the setting of NOMANCOMPRESS in /etc/make.conf. To specify whether the manpages are compressed upon installation, use the MAN COMPRESSED variable. This variable can take three values, `yes', `no' and `maybe'. `yes' means manpages are already installed compressed, `no' means they are not, and `maybe' means the software already respects the value of NOMANCOMPRESS so bsd.port.mk does not have to do anything special. MANCOMPRESSED is automatically set to `yes' if USE_IMAKE is set and NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES is not set, and to `no' otherwise. You don't have to explicitly define it unless the default is not suitable for your port. If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than PREFIX, you can use the MANPREFIX to set it. Also, if only manpages in certain sections go in a non- standard place, such as some Perl modules ports, you can set individual man paths using MAN_s_e_c_tPREFIX (where _s_e_c_t is one of 1-9, L or N). If your manpages go to language-specific subdirectories, set the name of the languages to MANLANG. The value of this variable defaults to "" (i.e., English only). Here is an example that puts it all together. FreeBSD Handbook 55 MAN1= foo.1 MAN3= bar.3 MAN4= baz.4 MANLANG= "" ja MAN3PREFIX= ${PREFIX}/share/foobar MANCOMPRESSED= yes states that six files ${PREFIX}/man/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/ja/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/man/man4/baz.4.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man4/baz.4.gz are installed by this port. _4_._7_._4_._6 _P_o_r_t_s _t_h_a_t _r_e_q_u_i_r_e _M_o_t_i_f There are many programs that require a Motif library (available from several commercial vendors, while there is a free clone reported to be able to run many applications in x11-toolkits/lesstif) to compile. Since it is a popular toolkit and their licenses usually permit redistribution of statically linked binaries, we have made special provisions for handling ports that require Motif in a way that we can easily compile binaries linked either dynamically (for people who are compiling from the port) or statically (for people who dis tribute packages). _4_._7_._4_._6_._1 _R_E_Q_U_I_R_E_S___M_O_T_I_F If your port requires Motif, define this variable in the Makefile. This will prevent people who don't own a copy of Motif from even attempting to build it. _4_._7_._4_._6_._2 _$_{_M_O_T_I_F_L_I_B_} This variable will be set by bsd.port.mk to be the appropriate reference to the Motif library. Please patch the source to use this wherever the Motif library is referenced in the Makefile or Imakefile. There are two common cases: 1. If the port refers to the Motif library as `-lXm' in its Makefile or Imakefile, simply substitute `${MOTIFLIB}' for it. 2. If the port uses `XmClientLibs' in its Imakefile, change it to `${MOTI FLIB} ${XTOOLLIB} ${XLIB}'. Note that ${MOTIFLIB} (usually) expands to `-L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm' or `/usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a', so there is no need to add `-L' or `-l' in front. FreeBSD Handbook 56 _4_._7_._4_._7 _X_1_1 _f_o_n_t_s If your port installs fonts for the X window system, put them in ${X11BASE}/lib/X11/fonts/local. This directory is new to XFree86 release 3.3.3. If it does not exist, please create it, and print out a message urging the user to update their XFree86 to 3.3.3 or newer, or at least add this direc tory to the font path in /etc/XF86Config. _4_._7_._4_._8 _I_n_f_o _f_i_l_e_s The new version of texinfo (included in 2.2.2-RELEASE and onwards) contains a utility called `install-info' to add and delete entries to the `dir' file. If your port installs any info documents, please follow these instructions so your port/package will correctly update the user's ${PREFIX}/info/dir file. (Sorry for the length of this section, but it is imperative to weave all the info files together. If done correctly, it will produce a _b_e_a_u_t_i_f_u_l listing, so please bear with me! :) First, this is what you (as a porter) need to know: % install-info --help install-info [OPTION]... [INFO-FILE [DIR-FILE]] Install INFO-FILE in the Info directory file DIR-FILE. Options: --delete Delete existing entries in INFO-FILE; don't insert any new entries. : --entry=TEXT Insert TEXT as an Info directory entry. : --section=SEC Put this file's entries in section SEC of the directory. : Note that this program will not actually _i_n_s_t_a_l_l info files; it merely inserts or deletes entries in the dir file. Here's a seven-step procedure to convert ports to use install-info. I will use editors/emacs as an example. 1. Look at the texinfo sources and make a patch to insert @dircategory and @direntry statements to files that don't have them. This is part of my patch: FreeBSD Handbook 57 --- ./man/vip.texi.org Fri Jun 16 15:31:11 1995 +++ ./man/vip.texi Tue May 20 01:28:33 1997 @@ -2,6 +2,10 @@ @setfilename ../info/vip @settitle VIP +@dircategory The Emacs editor and associated tools +@direntry +* VIP: (vip). A VI-emulation for Emacs. +@end direntry @iftex @finalout : The format should be self-explanatory. Many authors leave a dir file in the source tree that contains all the entries you need, so look around before you try to write your own. Also, make sure you look into related ports and make the section names and entry indentations consistent (we recommend that all entry text start at the 4th tab stop). Note that you can put only one info entry per file because of a bug in `install-info --delete' that deletes only the first entry if you specify multiple entries in the @direntry section. You can give the dir entries to install-info as arguments (--section and --entry) instead of patching the texinfo sources. I do not think this is a good idea for ports because you need to duplicate the same information in _t_h_r_e_e places (Makefile and @exec/@unexec of PLIST; see below). How ever, if you have a Japanese (or other multibyte encoding) info files, you will have to use the extra arguments to install-info because makeinfo can't handle those texinfo sources. (See Makefile and PLIST of japanese/skk for examples on how to do this). 2. Go back to the port directory and do a `make clean; make' and verify that the info files are regenerated from the texinfo sources. Since the tex info sources are newer than the info files, they should be rebuilt when you type make; but many Makefiles don't include correct dependencies for info files. In emacs' case, I had to patch the main Makefile.in so it will descend into the man subdirectory to rebuild the info pages. FreeBSD Handbook 58 --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:15:28 1997 @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ # Subdirectories to make recursively. `lisp' is not included # because the compiled lisp files are part of the distribution # and you cannot remake them without installing Emacs first. -SUBDIR = lib-src src +SUBDIR = lib-src src man # The makefiles of the directories in $SUBDIR. SUBDIR_MAKEFILES = lib-src/Makefile man/Makefile src/Makefile oldXMenu/Makefile lwlib/Makefile --- ./man/Makefile.in.org Thu Jun 27 15:27:19 1996 +++ ./man/Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:29:52 1997 @@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ ${srcdir}/gnu1.texi \ ${srcdir}/glossary.texi +all: info info: $(INFO_TARGETS) dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS) The second hunk was necessary because the default target in the man sub dir is called info, while the main Makefile wants to call all. I also deleted the installation of the info info file because we already have one with the same name in /usr/share/info (that patch is not shown here). 3. If there is a place in the Makefile that is installing the dir file, delete it. Your port may not be doing it. Also, remove any commands that are otherwise mucking around with the dir file. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Mon Apr 14 23:38:07 1997 @@ -368,14 +368,8 @@ if [ `(cd ${srcdir}/info && /bin/pwd)` != `(cd ${infodir} && /bin/pwd)` ]; \ then \ (cd ${infodir}; \ - if [ -f dir ]; then \ - if [ ! -f dir.old ]; then mv -f dir dir.old; \ - else mv -f dir dir.bak; fi; \ - fi; \ cd ${srcdir}/info ; \ - (cd $${thisdir}; ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/dir ${infodir}/dir); \ - (cd $${thisdir}; chmod a+r ${infodir}/dir); \ for f in ccmode* cl* dired-x* ediff* emacs* forms* gnus* info* message* mh-e* sc* vip*; do \ (cd $${thisdir}; \ ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/$$f ${infodir}/$$f; \ chmod a+r ${infodir}/$$f); \ FreeBSD Handbook 59 4. (This step is only necessary if you are modifying an existing port.) Take a look at pkg/PLIST and delete anything that is trying to patch up info/dir. They may be in pkg/INSTALL or some other file, so search extensively. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/04/15 06:32:12 @@ -15,9 +15,6 @@ man/man1/emacs.1.gz man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz -@unexec cp %D/info/dir %D/info/dir.bak -info/dir -@unexec cp %D/info/dir.bak %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 info/cl-2 5. Add a post-install target to the Makefile to create a dir file if it is not there. Also, call install-info with the installed info files. Index: Makefile =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/Makefile,v retrieving revision 1.26 diff -u -r1.26 Makefile --- Makefile 1996/11/19 13:14:40 1.26 +++ Makefile 1997/05/20 10:25:09 1.28 @@ -20,5 +20,11 @@ post-install: .for file in emacs-19.34 emacsclient etags ctags b2m strip ${PREFIX}/bin/${file} .endfor + if [ ! -f ${PREFIX}/info/dir ]; then \ + ${SED} -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir > ${PREFIX}/info/dir; \ + fi +.for info in emacs vip viper forms gnus mh-e cl sc dired-x ediff ccmode + install-info ${PREFIX}/info/${info} ${PREFIX}/info/dir +.endfor .include FreeBSD Handbook 60 Do not use anything other than /usr/share/info/dir and the above command to create a new info file. In fact, I'd add the first three lines of the above patch to bsd.port.mk if you (the porter) wouldn't have to do it in PLIST by yourself anyway. 6. Edit PLIST and add equivalent @exec statements and also @unexec for pkg_delete. You do not need to delete info/dir with @unexec. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/05/20 10:25:12 1.17 @@ -16,7 +14,15 @@ man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 @@ -87,6 +94,18 @@ info/viper-3 info/viper-4 +@exec [ -f %D/info/dir ] || sed -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir > %D/info/dir +@exec install-info %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@exec install-info %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/cvtmail libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/digest-doc Note that the `@unexec install-info --delete' commands have to be listed before the info files themselves so they can read the files. Also, the `@exec install-info' commands have to be after the info files and the @exec command that creates the the dir file. 7. _T_e_s_t (section 4.7.1.4, page 40) and admire your work. :) Check the dir file before and after each step. _4_._7_._5 _T_h_e _p_k_g _S_u_b_d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y There are some tricks we haven't mentioned yet about the pkg subdirectory that come in handy sometimes. _4_._7_._5_._1 _M_E_S_S_A_G_E If you need to display a message to the installer, you may place the message in pkg/MESSAGE. This capability is often useful to display additional FreeBSD Handbook 61 installation steps to be taken after a pkg_add, or to display licensing infor mation. Note the pkg/MESSAGE file does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST. Also, it will not get automatically printed if the user is using the port, not the package, so you should probably display it from the post-install target by yourself. _4_._7_._5_._2 _I_N_S_T_A_L_L If your port needs to execute commands when the binary package is installed with pkg_add you can do this via the pkg/INSTALL script. This script will automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice by pkg_add. The first time will as `INSTALL ${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL' and the second time as `INSTALL ${PKGNAME} POST-INSTALL'. `$2' can be tested to determine which mode the script is being run in. The `PKG_PREFIX' environmental variable will be set to the package installation directory. See man pkg_add(1) for additional information. Note, that this script is not run automatically if you install the port with `make install'. If you are depending on it being run, you will have to explicitly call it from your port's Makefile. _4_._7_._5_._3 _R_E_Q If your port needs to determine if it should install or not, you can create a pkg/REQ ``requirements'' script. It will be invoked automatically at installa tion/deinstallation time to determine whether or not installation/deinstalla tion should proceed. _4_._7_._5_._4 _C_h_a_n_g_i_n_g _P_L_I_S_T _b_a_s_e_d _o_n _m_a_k_e _v_a_r_i_a_b_l_e_s Some ports, particularly the p5- ports, need to change their PLIST depending on what options they are configured with (or version of perl, in the case of p5- ports). To make this easy, any instances in the PLIST of %%OSREL%%, %%PERL_VER%%, and %%PERL_VERSION%% will be substituted for appropriately. The value of %%OSREL%% is the numeric revision of the operating system (e.g., `2.2.7'). %%PERL_VERSION%% is the full version number of perl (e.g., `5.00502') and %%PERL_VER%% is the perl version number minus the patchlevel (e.g., `5.005'). If you need to make other substitutions, you can set the PLIST_SUB variable with a list of VAR=VALUE pairs and instances of `%%VAR%%' will be substituted with `VALUE' in the PLIST. For instance, if you have a port that installs many files in a version-specific subdirectory, you can put something like OCTAVE_VERSION= 2.0.13 PLIST_SUB= OCTAVE_VERSION=${OCTAVE_VERSION} in the Makefile and use %%OCTAVE_VERSION%% wherever the version shows up in PLIST. That way, when you upgrade the port, you will not have to change dozens (or in some cases, hundreds) of lines in the PLIST. This substitution (as well as addition of any _m_a_n _p_a_g_e_s (section 4.7.4.5, page 54)) will be done between the do-install and post-install targets, by reading from ${PLIST} and writing to ${TMPPLIST} (default: ${WRKDIR}/.PLIST.mktmp). So if your port builds ${PLIST} on the fly, do so in or before do-install. Also, if your port needs to edit the resulting file, do so in post-install to a file FreeBSD Handbook 62 named ${TMPPLIST}. _4_._7_._5_._5 _C_h_a_n_g_i_n_g _t_h_e _n_a_m_e_s _o_f _f_i_l_e_s _i_n _t_h_e _p_k_g _s_u_b_d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y All the filenames in the pkg subdirectory are defined using variables so you can change them in your Makefile if need be. This is especially useful when you are sharing the same pkg subdirectory among several ports or have to write to one of the above files (see _w_r_i_t_i_n_g _t_o _p_l_a_c_e_s _o_t_h_e_r _t_h_a_n _W_R_K_D_I_R (section 4.7.8.3, page 64) for why it is a bad idea to write directly into the pkg sub directory). Here is a list of variable names and their default values. COMMENT ${PKGDIR}/COMMENT DESCR ${PKGDIR}/DESCR PLIST ${PKGDIR}/PLIST PKGINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/INSTALL PKGDEINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/DEINSTALL PKGREQ ${PKGDIR}/REQ PKGMESSAGE ${PKGDIR}/MESSAGE Please change these variables rather than overriding PKG_ARGS. If you change PKG_ARGS, those files will not correctly be installed in /var/db/pkg upon install from a port. _4_._7_._6 _L_i_c_e_n_s_i_n_g _P_r_o_b_l_e_m_s Some software packages have restrictive licenses or can be in violation to the law (PKP's patent on public key crypto, ITAR (export of crypto software) to name just two of them). What we can do with them varies a lot, depending on the exact wordings of the respective licenses. Note that it is your responsibility as a porter to read the licensing terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD project will not be held account able of violating them by redistributing the source or compiled binaries either via ftp or CD-ROM. If in doubt, please contact the FreeBSD ports mailing list . There are two variables you can set in the Makefile to handle the situations that arise frequently: 1. If the port has a `do not sell for profit' type of license, set the vari able NO_CDROM to the string describing the reason why. We will make sure such ports won't go into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile and package will still be available via ftp. 2. If the resulting package needs to be built uniquely for each site, or the resulting binary package can't be distributed due to licensing, set the variable NO_PACKAGE to the string describing the reason why. We will make sure such packages won't go on the ftp site, nor into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile will still be included on both however. 3. If the port has legal restrictions on who can use it (e.g., crypto stuff) or has a `no commercial use' license, set the variable RESTRICTED to be FreeBSD Handbook 63 the string describing the reason why. For such ports, the dist files/packages will not be available even from our ftp sites. Note: The GNU General Public License (GPL), both version 1 and 2, should not be a problem for ports. Note: If you are a committer, make sure you update the ports/LEGAL file too. _4_._7_._7 _U_p_g_r_a_d_i_n_g When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the latest version from the original authors, first make sure you have the latest port. You can find them in the ports/ports-current directory of the ftp mirror sites. The next step is to send a mail to the maintainer, if one is listed in the port's Makefile. That person may already be working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the port right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the new version). If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there isn't any such person to begin with, please make the upgrade and send the recursive diff (either unified or context diff is fine, but port committers appear to prefer unified diff more) of the new and old ports directories to us (e.g., if your modified port directory is called `superedit' and the original as in our tree is `superedit.bak', then send us the result of `diff -ruN superedit.bak superedit'). Please examine the output to make sure all the changes make sense. The best way to send us the diff is by including it to send-pr(1) (cat egory `ports'). Please mention any added or deleted files in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified to CVS when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB, please compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in as is in the PR. Once again, please use diff(1) and not shar(1) to send updates to ports. _4_._7_._8 _D_o_'_s _a_n_d _D_o_n_t_'_s " Here is a list of common do's and dont's that you encounter during the porting process. You should check your own port against this list, but you can also check ports in the PR database that others have submitted. Submit any comments on ports you check as described in _B_u_g _R_e_p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _C_o_m_m_e_n_t_a_r_y (section 19.2.1, page 381). Checking ports in the PR database will both make it faster for us to commit them, and prove that you know what you are doing. _4_._7_._8_._1 _S_t_r_i_p _B_i_n_a_r_i_e_s Do strip binaries. If the original source already strips the binaries, fine; otherwise you should add a post-install rule to do it yourself. Here is an example: post-install: strip ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl FreeBSD Handbook 64 Use the file command on the installed executable to check whether the binary is stripped or not. If it does not say `not stripped', it is stripped. _4_._7_._8_._2 _I_N_S_T_A_L_L___* _m_a_c_r_o_s Do use the macros provided in bsd.port.mk to ensure correct modes and ownership of files in your own *-install targets. They are: ${INSTALL_PROGRAM} is a command to install binary executables. ${INSTALL_SCRIPT} is a command to install executable scripts. ${INSTALL_DATA} is a command to install sharable data. ${INSTALL_MAN} is a command to install manpages and other documentation (it doesn't compress anything). These are basically the install command with all the appropriate flags. See below for an example on how to use them. _4_._7_._8_._3 _W_R_K_D_I_R Do not write anything to files outside WKRDIR. WRKDIR is the only place that is guaranteed to be writable during the port build (see _c_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _p_o_r_t_s _f_r_o_m _C_D_R_O_M (section 4.3.1, page 28) for an example of building ports from a read- only tree). If you need to modify some file in ${PKGDIR}, do so by _r_e_d_e_f_i_n_i_n_g _a _v_a_r_i_a_b_l_e (section 4.7.5.5, page 62), not by writing over it. _4_._7_._8_._4 _W_R_K_D_I_R_P_R_E_F_I_X Make sure your port honors WRKDIRPREFIX. (Most ports don't have to worry about this.) In particular, if you are referring to a ${WRKDIR} of another port, note that the correct location is ${WRKDIRPREFIX}${PORTSDIR}/subdir/name/work, not ${PORTSDIR}/subdir/name/work or ${.CURDIR}/../../subdir/name/work or some such. Also, if you are defining WRKDIR yourself, make sure you prepend ${WRKDIRPRE FIX}${.CURDIR} in the front. _4_._7_._8_._5 _D_i_f_f_e_r_e_n_t_i_a_t_i_n_g _o_p_e_r_a_t_i_n_g _s_y_s_t_e_m_s _a_n_d _O_S _v_e_r_s_i_o_n_s You may come across code that needs modifications or conditional compilation based upon what version of UNIX it is running under. If you need to make such changes to the code for conditional compilation, make sure you make the changes as general as possible so that we can back-port code to FreeBSD 1.x systems and cross-port to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer versions of the BSD code apart is by using the `BSD' macro defined in . Hopefully that file is already included; if not, add the code: FreeBSD Handbook 65 #if (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) && !defined(USG) #include #endif to the proper place in the .c file. We believe that every system that defines these two symbols has sys/param.h. If you find a system that doesn't, we would like to know. Please send mail to the FreeBSD ports mailing list . Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing this: #ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H #include #endif Don't forget to add -DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H to the CFLAGS in the Makefile for this method. Once you have included, you may use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199103)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD, BSD/386 1.1 and below). Use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199306)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or above). The value of the BSD macro is 199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2 code base. This is stated for informational purposes only. It should not be used to distinguish between versions of FreeBSD based only on 4.4-Lite vs. versions that have merged in changes from 4.4-Lite2. The __FreeBSD__ macro should be used instead. Use sparingly: __FreeBSD__ is defined in all versions of FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making ONLY affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like the use of sys_errlist[] vs strerror() are Berkeleyisms, not FreeBSD changes. In FreeBSD 2.x, __FreeBSD__ is defined to be 2. In earlier versions, it is 1. Later versions will bump it to match their major version number. If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD 1.x system and a FreeBSD 2.x or 3.x system, usually the right answer is to use the BSD macros described above. If there actually is a FreeBSD specific change (such as special shared library options when using `ld') then it is OK to use __FreeBSD__ and `#if __FreeBSD__ > 1' to detect a FreeBSD 2.x and later system. FreeBSD Handbook 66 If you need more granularity in detecting FreeBSD systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use the following: #if __FreeBSD__ >= 2 #include # if __FreeBSD_version >= 199504 /* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */ # endif #endif __FreeBSD_version values: 2.0-RELEASE: 199411 2.1-CURRENT's: 199501, 199503 2.0.5-RELEASE: 199504 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1: 199508 2.1.0-RELEASE: 199511 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.5: 199512 2.1.5-RELEASE: 199607 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.6: 199608 2.1.6-RELEASE: 199612 2.1.7-RELEASE: 199612 2.2-RELEASE: 220000 2.2.1-RELEASE: 220000 (yes, no change) 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE: 220000 (yes, still no change) 2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9: 221001 2.2-STABLE after top: 221002 2.2.2-RELEASE: 222000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE: 222001 2.2.5-RELEASE: 225000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE: 225001 2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge: 225002 2.2.6-RELEASE: 226000 2.2.7-RELEASE: 227000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.7-RELEASE: 227001 2.2-STABLE after semctl(2) change: 227002 2.2.8-RELEASE: 228000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.8-RELEASE: 228001 3.0-CURRENT before mount(2) change: 300000 3.0-CURRENT after mount(2) change: 300001 3.0-CURRENT after semctl(2) change: 300002 3.0-CURRENT after ioctl arg changes: 300003 3.0-CURRENT after ELF conversion: 300004 3.0-RELEASE: 300005 3.0-CURRENT after 3.0-RELEASE: 300006 3.0-STABLE after 3/4 branch: 300007 3.1-RELEASE: 310000 3.1-STABLE after 3.1-RELEASE: 310001 4.0-CURRENT after 3/4 branch: 400000 (Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as "2.2.[5678]-STABLE" FreeBSD Handbook 67 after the 2.2.5-RELEASE.) The pattern used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2. This is because the parallel development on several branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real release dates. (Note that if you are making a port now, you don't have to worry about old -CURRENT's; they are listed here just for your reference.) In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have only been one or two cases where __FreeBSD__ should have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up and used it in the wrong place does not mean you should do so too. _4_._7_._8_._6 _W_r_i_t_i_n_g _s_o_m_e_t_h_i_n_g _a_f_t_e_r _b_s_d_._p_o_r_t_._m_k Do not write anything after the `.include ' line. It usually can be avoided by including bsd.port.pre.mk somewhere in the middle of your Make file and bsd.port.post.mk at the end. (Note that you need to include either the pre.mk/post.mk pair or bsd.port.mk only; don't mix those two.) The former only defines a few variables, which can be used in tests in Makefiles; the lat ter defines the rest. Here are some important variables defined in bsd.port.pre.mk. (This is not the entire list; please read bsd.port.mk for the complete list.) ${ARCH} The architecture, as returned by `uname -m' (e.g., `i386'). ${OPSYS} The operating system type, as returned by `uname -s' (e.g., `FreeBSD'). ${OSREL} The release version of the operating system (e.g., `2.1.5', `2.2.7'). ${OSVERSION} The numeric version of the operating system, same as _____F_r_e_e_B_S_D___v_e_r_ _s_i_o_n (section 4.7.8.5, page 64) above. ${PORTOBJFORMAT} The object format of the system (`aout' or `elf'). ${LOCALBASE} The base of the `local' tree (e.g., `/usr/local/'). ${X11BASE} The base of the `X11' tree (e.g., `/usr/X11R6/'). ${PREFIX} Where the port installs itself (see _m_o_r_e _o_n _P_R_E_F_I_X (section 4.7.8.11, page 69)). Note: if you have to define the variables USE_IMAKE, USE_X_PREFIX or MASTERDIR, do so before including bsd.port.pre.mk; everything else can be either before or after bsd.port.pre.mk. Here are some examples of things you can write after FreeBSD Handbook 68 bsd.port.pre.mk: # no need to compile lang/perl5 if perl5 is already in system .if ${OSVERSION} > 300003 BROKEN= perl is in system .endif # only one shlib version number for ELF .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "elf" TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR} .else TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR}.${SHLIB_MINOR} .endif # software already makes link for ELF, but not for a.out post-install: .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "aout" ${LN} -sf liblinpack.so.1.0 ${PREFIX}/lib/liblinpack.so .endif _4_._7_._8_._7 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l _a_d_d_i_t_i_o_n_a_l _d_o_c_u_m_e_n_t_a_t_i_o_n If your software has some documentation other than the standard man and info pages that you think is useful for the user, install it under ${PRE FIX}/share/doc. This can be done, like the previous item, in the post-install target. Create a new directory for your port. The directory name should reflect what the port is. This usually means ${PKGNAME} minus the version part. However, if you think the user might want different versions of the port to be installed at the same time, you can use the whole ${PKGNAME}. Make the installation dependent on the variable NOPORTDOCS so that users can disable it in /etc/make.conf, like this: post-install: .if !defined(NOPORTDOCS) ${MKDIR} ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv .endif Do not forget to add them to pkg/PLIST too! (Do not worry about NOPORTDOCS here; there is currently no way for the packages to read variables from /etc/make.conf.) Also, you can use the pkg/MESSAGE file to display messages upon installation. See the _u_s_i_n_g _p_k_g_/_M_E_S_S_A_G_E (section 4.7.5.1, page 60) section for details. _4_._7_._8_._8 _D_I_S_T___S_U_B_D_I_R Do not let your port clutter /usr/ports/distfiles. If your port requires a lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that has a name that might conflict with other ports (e.g., `Makefile'), set ${DIST_SUBDIR} to the name of the port (${PKGNAME} without the version part should work fine). This will change FreeBSD Handbook 69 ${DISTDIR} from the default /usr/ports/distfiles to /usr/ports/dist files/${DIST_SUBDIR}, and in effect puts everything that is required for your port into that subdirectory. It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name on the backup master site at ftp.freebsd.org. (Setting ${DISTDIR} explicitly in your Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use ${DIST_SUBDIR}.) Note this does not affect the ${MASTER_SITES} you define in your Makefile. _4_._7_._8_._9 _R_C_S _s_t_r_i_n_g_s Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them when we put the files into the ports tree, and when we check them out again, they will come out dif ferent and the patch will fail. RCS strings are surrounded by dollar (`$') signs, and typically start with `$Id' or `$RCS'. _4_._7_._8_._1_0 _R_e_c_u_r_s_i_v_e _d_i_f_f Using the recurse (`-r') option to diff to generate patches is fine, but please take a look at the resulting patches to make sure you don't have any unneces sary junk in there. In particular, diffs between two backup files, Makefiles when the port uses Imake or GNU configure, etc., are unnecessary and should be deleted. If you had to edit configure.in and run autoconf to regenerate con figure, do not take the diffs of configure (it often grows to a few thousand lines!); define USE_AUTOCONF=yes and take the diffs of configure.in. Also, if you had to delete a file, then you can do it in the post-extract tar get rather than as part of the patch. Once you are happy with the resulting diff, please split it up into one source file per patch file. _4_._7_._8_._1_1 _P_R_E_F_I_X Do try to make your port install relative to ${PREFIX}. (The value of this variable will be set to ${LOCALBASE} (default /usr/local), unless ${USE_X_PRE FIX} or ${USE_IMAKE} is set, in which case it will be ${X11BASE} (default /usr/X11R6).) Not hard-coding `/usr/local' or `/usr/X11R6' anywhere in the source will make the port much more flexible and able to cater to the needs of other sites. For X ports that use imake, this is automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply replacing the occurrences of `/usr/local' (or `/usr/X11R6' for X ports that do not use imake) in the various scripts/Makefiles in the port to read `${PREFIX}', as this variable is automatically passed down to every stage of the build and install processes. Do not set USE_X_PREFIX unless your port truly requires it (i.e. it links against X libs or it needs to reference files in ${X11BASE}). The variable ${PREFIX} can be reassigned in your Makefile or in the user's environment. However, it is strongly discouraged for individual ports to set this variable explicitly in the Makefiles. Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the variables mentioned FreeBSD Handbook 70 above, not explicit pathnames. For instance, if your port requires a macro PAGER to be the full pathname of less, use the compiler flag: -DPAGER=\"${PREFIX}/bin/less\" or -DPAGER=\"${LOCALBASE}/bin/less\" if this is an X port, instead of -DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\". This way it will have a better chance of working if the system administrator has moved the whole `/usr/local' tree somewhere else. _4_._7_._8_._1_2 _S_u_b_d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_i_e_s Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories of ${PREFIX}. Some ports lump everything and put it in the subdirectory with the port's name, which is incorrect. Also, many ports put everything except binaries, header files and manual pages in the a subdirectory of `lib', which does not bode well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be moved to one of the follow ing: `etc' (setup/configuration files), `libexec' (executables started inter nally), `sbin' (executables for superusers/managers), `info' (documentation for info browser) or `share' (architecture independent files). See man hier(7) for details; the rules governing /usr pretty much apply to /usr/local too. The exceptions are ports dealing with USENET `news'. They may use ${PREFIX}/news as a destination for their files. _4_._7_._8_._1_3 _C_l_e_a_n_i_n_g _u_p _e_m_p_t_y _d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_i_e_s Do make your ports clean up after themselves when they are deinstalled. This is usually accomplished by adding @dirrm lines for all directories that are specifically created by the port. Note you need to delete subdirectories before you can delete parent directories, as in: : lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps/cat.xpm lib/X11/oneko/sounds/cat.au : @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/sounds @dirrm lib/X11/oneko However, sometimes @dirrm will give you errors because other ports also share the same subdirectory. You can call rmdir from @unexec to remove only empty directories without warning: : @unexec rmdir %D/share/doc/gimp 2>/dev/null || true FreeBSD Handbook 71 This will neither print any error messages nor cause pkg_delete to exit abnor mally even if ${PREFIX}/share/doc/gimp is not empty due to other ports installing some files in there. _4_._7_._8_._1_4 _U_I_D_s If your port requires a certain user to be on the installed system, let the pkg/INSTALL script call pw to create it automatically. Look at net/cvsup-mir ror for an example. If your port must use the same user/group ID number when it is installed as a binary package as when it was compiled, then you must choose a free UID from 50 to 99 and register it below. Look at japanese/Wnn for an example. Make sure you don't use a UID already used by the system or other ports. This is the current list of UIDs between 50 and 99. majordom:*:54:54:Majordomo Pseudo User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent cyrus:*:60:60:the cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh uucp:*:66:66:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner (popper):/nonexistent:/nonexistent wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent ifmail:*:70:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent pgsql:*:70:70:PostgreSQL pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh ircd:*:72:72:IRCd hybrid:/nonexistent:/nonexistent alias:*:81:81:QMail user:/var/qmail/alias:/nonexistent qmaill:*:83:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmaild:*:82:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailq:*:85:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmails:*:87:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailp:*:84:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailr:*:86:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent msql:*:87:87:mSQL-2 pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh Please include a notice when you submit a port (or an upgrade) that reserves a new UID or GID in this range. This allows us to keep the list of reserved IDs up to date. _4_._7_._8_._1_5 _D_o _t_h_i_n_g_s _r_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_l_y The Makefile should do things simply and reasonably. If you can make it a cou ple of lines shorter or more readable, then do so. Examples include using a make `.if' construct instead of a shell `if' construct, not redefining do- extract if you can redefine ${EXTRACT*} instead, and using $GNU_CONFIGURE instead of `CONFIGURE_ARGS += --prefix=${PREFIX}'. _4_._7_._8_._1_6 _R_e_s_p_e_c_t _C_F_L_A_G_S The port should respect the ${CFLAGS} variable. If it doesn't, please add `NO_PACKAGE=ignores cflags' to the Makefile. FreeBSD Handbook 72 _4_._7_._8_._1_7 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _f_i_l_e_s If your port requires some configuration files in ${PREFIX}/etc, do _n_o_t just install them and list them in pkg/PLIST. That will cause pkg_delete to delete files carefully edited by the user and a new installation to wipe them out. Instead, install sample files with a suffix (`.sample' will work well) and print out a _m_e_s_s_a_g_e (section 4.7.5.1, page 60) pointing out that the user has to copy and edit the file before the software can be made to work. _4_._7_._8_._1_8 _P_o_r_t_l_i_n_t Do check your port with _p_o_r_t_l_i_n_t (section 4.7.1.5, page 41) before you submit or commit it. _4_._7_._8_._1_9 _F_e_e_d_b_a_c_k Do send applicable changes/patches to the original author/maintainer for inclu sion in next release of the code. This will only make your job that much eas ier for the next release. _4_._7_._8_._2_0 _M_i_s_c_e_l_l_a_n_e_a The files pkg/DESCR, pkg/COMMENT, and pkg/PLIST should each be double-checked. If you are reviewing a port and feel they can be worded better, do so. Don't copy more copies of the GNU General Public License into our system, please. Please be careful to note any legal issues! Don't let us illegally distribute software! _4_._7_._8_._2_1 _I_f _y_o_u _a_r_e _s_t_u_c_k_._._._. Do look at existing examples and the bsd.port.mk file before asking us ques tions! ;) Do ask us questions if you have any trouble! Do not just beat your head against a wall! :) _4_._7_._9 _A _S_a_m_p_l_e _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e Here is a sample Makefile that you can use to create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra comments (ones between brackets)! It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). This format is designed so that the most impor tant information is easy to locate. We recommend that you use _p_o_r_t_l_i_n_t (sec tion 4.7.1.5, page 41) to check the Makefile. FreeBSD Handbook 73 [the header...just to make it easier for us to identify the ports.] # New ports collection makefile for: xdvi [the version required header should updated when upgrading a port.] # Version required: pl18 [things like "1.5alpha" are fine here too] [this is the date when the first version of this Makefile was created. Never change this when doing an update of the port.] # Date created: 26 May 1995 [this is the person who did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the person who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember, this should not be changed when upgrading the port later.] # Whom: Satoshi Asami # # $Id$ [ ^^^^ This will be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS when it is committed to our repository.] # [section to describe the port itself and the master site - DISTNAME is always first, followed by PKGNAME (if necessary), CATEGORIES, and then MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR. After those, one of EXTRACT_SUFX or DISTFILES can be specified too.] DISTNAME= xdvi PKGNAME= xdvi-pl18 CATEGORIES= print [do not forget the trailing slash ("/")! if you aren't using MASTER_SITE_* macros] MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications [set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz" form] EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z [section for distributed patches -- can be empty] PATCH_SITES= ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/ PATCHFILES= xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz [maintainer; *mandatory*! This is the person (preferably with commit privileges) who a user can contact for questions and bug reports - this person should be the porter or someone who can forward questions to the original porter reasonably promptly. If you really do not want to have your address here, set it to "ports@FreeBSD.ORG".] MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.ORG [dependencies -- can be empty] RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript LIB_DEPENDS= Xpm.5:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm [this section is for other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not belong to any of the above] [If it asks questions during configure, build, install...] IS_INTERACTIVE= yes [If it extracts to a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...] WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new [If the distributed patches were not made relative to ${WRKSRC}, you may need to tweak this] FreeBSD Handbook 74 PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1 [If it requires a "configure" script generated by GNU autoconf to be run] GNU_CONFIGURE= yes [If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to build...] USE_GMAKE= yes [If it is an X application and requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...] USE_IMAKE= yes [et cetera.] [non-standard variables to be used in the rules below] MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right" [then the special rules, in the order they are called] pre-fetch: i go fetch something, yeah post-patch: i need to do something after patch, great pre-install: and then some more stuff before installing, wow [and then the epilogue] .include _4_._7_._1_0 _P_a_c_k_a_g_e _N_a_m_e_s The following are the conventions you should follow in naming your packages. This is to have our package directory easy to scan, as there are already lots and lots of packages and users are going to turn away if they hurt their eyes! The package name should look like [-][[-]]-; If your ${DISTNAME} doesn't look like that, set ${PKGNAME} to something in that format. 1. FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its users. The `' part should be a two letter abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if the port is specific to a certain language. Exam ples are `ja' for Japanese, `ru' for Russian, `vi' for Vietnamese, `zh' for Chinese, `ko' for Korean and `de' for German. 2. The `' part should be all lowercases, except for a really large package (with lots of programs in it). Things like XFree86 (yes there really is a port of it, check it out) and ImageMagick fall into this cat egory. Otherwise, convert the name (or at least the first letter) to lowercase. If the capital letters are important to the name (for exam ple, with one-letter names like R or V) you may use capital letters at your discretion. There is a tradition of naming Perl 5 modules by prepending `p5-' and converting the double-colon separator to a hyphen; for example, the `Data::Dumper' module becomes `p5-Data-Dumper'. If the software in question has numbers, hyphens, or underscores in its name, FreeBSD Handbook 75 you may include them as well (like `kinput2'). 3. If the port can be built with different _h_a_r_d_c_o_d_e_d _d_e_f_a_u_l_t_s (section 4.7.4.3, page 53) (usually part of the directory name in a family of ports), the `' part should state the compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples are papersize and font units. 4. The version string should be a period-separated list of integers and sin gle lowercase alphabetics. The only exception is the string `pl' (mean ing `patchlevel'), which can be used _o_n_l_y when there are no major and minor version numbers in the software. Here are some (real) examples on how to convert a ${DISTNAME} into a suitable ${PKGNAME}: DISTNAME PKGNAME Reason mule-2.2.2 mule-2.2.2 no prob at all XFree86-3.1.2 XFree86-3.1.2 ditto EmiClock-1.0.2 emiclock-1.0.2 no uppercase names for single programs gmod1.4 gmod-1.4 need hyphen after `' xmris.4.02 xmris-4.02 ditto rdist-1.3alpha rdist-1.3a no strings like `alpha' allowed es-0.9-beta1 es-0.9b1 ditto v3.3beta021.src tiff-3.3 what the heck was that anyway? ;) tvtwm tvtwm-pl11 version string always required piewm piewm-1.0 ditto xvgr-2.10pl1 xvgr-2.10.1 `pl' allowed only when no maj/minor numbers gawk-2.15.6 ja-gawk-2.15.6 Japanese language version psutils-1.13 psutils-letter-1.13 papersize hardcoded at package build time pkfonts pkfonts300-1.0 package for 300dpi fonts If there is absolutely no trace of version information in the original source and it is unlikely that the original author will ever release another version, just set the version string to `1.0' (like the piewm example above). Other wise, ask the original author or use the date string (`yy.mm.dd') as the ver sion. _4_._7_._1_1 _C_a_t_e_g_o_r_i_e_s As you already know, ports are classified in several categories. But for this to work, it is important that porters and users understand what each category is and how we decide what to put in each category. _4_._7_._1_1_._1 _C_u_r_r_e_n_t _l_i_s_t _o_f _c_a_t_e_g_o_r_i_e_s First, this is the current list of port categories. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are _v_i_r_t_u_a_l categories -- those that do not have a corresponding subdirectory in the ports tree. Note that for non-virtual categories, you will find a one-line description in the pkg/COMMENT file in that subdirectory (e.g., archivers/pkg/COMMENT). afterstep* Ports to support the AfterStep window manager. FreeBSD Handbook 76 archivers Archiving tools. astro Astronomical ports. audio Sound support. benchmarks Benchmarking utilities. biology Biology-related software. cad Computer aided design tools. chinese Chinese language support. comms Communication software. Mostly software to talk to your serial port. converters Character code converters. databases Databases. deskutils Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. devel Development utilities. Do not put libraries here just because they are libraries -- unless they truly don't belong to anywhere else, they shouldn't be in this category. editors General editors. Specialized editors go in the section for those tools (e.g., a mathematical-formula editor will go in math). elisp Emacs-lisp ports. emulators Emulators for other operating systems. Terminal emulators do _n_o_t belong here -- X-based ones should go to x11 and text-based ones to either comms or misc, depending on the exact functionality. games Games. FreeBSD Handbook 77 german German language support. graphics Graphics utilities. japanese Japanese language support. kde* Ports that form the K Desktop Environment (kde). korean Korean language support. lang Programming languages. mail Mail software. math Numerical computation software and other utilities for mathematics. mbone MBone applications. misc Miscellaneous utilities -- basically things that doesn't belong to anywhere else. This is the only category that should not appear with any other non-virtual category. If you have misc with some thing else in your CATEGORIES line, that means you can safely delete misc and just put the port in that other subdirectory! :) net Miscellaneous networking software. news USENET news software. offix* Ports from the OffiX suite. palm Software support for the 3Com Palm(tm) series. perl5* Ports that require perl version 5 to run. plan9* Various programs from Plan9. print Printing software. Desktop publishing tools (previewers, etc.) FreeBSD Handbook 78 belong here too. python* Software written in python. russian Russian language support. security Security utilities. shells Command line shells. sysutils System utilities. tcl75* Ports that use tcl version 7.5 to run. tcl76* Ports that use tcl version 7.6 to run. tcl80* Ports that use tcl version 8.0 to run. tcl81* Ports that use tcl version 8.1 to run. textproc Text processing utilities. It does not include desktop publishing tools, which go to print. tk41* Ports that use tk version 4.1 to run. tk42* Ports that use tk version 4.2 to run. tk80* Ports that use tk version 8.0 to run. tk81* Ports that use tk version 8.1 to run. vietnamese Vietnamese language support. windowmaker* Ports to support the WindowMaker window manager. www Software related to the World Wide Web. HTML language support belong here too. FreeBSD Handbook 79 x11 The X window system and friends. This category is only for soft ware that directly support the window system. Do not put regular X applications here. If your port is an X application, define USE_XLIB (implied by USE_IMAKE) and put it in appropriate cate gories. Also, many of them go into other x11-* categories (see below). x11-clocks X11 clocks. x11-fm X11 file managers. x11-fonts X11 fonts and font utilities. x11-toolkits X11 toolkits. x11-wm X11 window managers. _4_._7_._1_1_._2 _C_h_o_o_s_i_n_g _t_h_e _r_i_g_h_t _c_a_t_e_g_o_r_y As many of the categories overlap, you often have to choose which of the cate gories should be the `primary' category of your port. There are several rules that govern this issue. Here is the list of priorities, in decreasing order of precedence. 1. Language specific categories always come first. For example, if your port installs Japanese X11 fonts, then your CATEGORIES line should read `japanese x11-fonts'. 2. Specific categories win over less-specific ones. For instance, an HTML editor should be listed as `www editors', not the other way around. Also, you don't need to list net when the port belongs to either of mail, mbone, news, security or www. 3. x11 is used as a secondary category only when the primary category is a natural language. In particular, you should _n_o_t put x11 in the category line for X applications. 4. If your port truly doesn't belong to anywhere else, put it in misc. If you are not sure about the category, please put a comment to that effect in your send-pr submission so we can discuss it before importing it. (If you are a committer, send a note to FreeBSD ports mailing list so we can discuss it first -- too often new ports are imported to a wrong category only to be moved right away.) _4_._7_._1_2 _C_h_a_n_g_e_s _t_o _t_h_i_s _d_o_c_u_m_e_n_t _a_n_d _t_h_e _p_o_r_t_s _s_y_s_t_e_m If you maintain a lot of ports, you should consider following the FreeBSD ports FreeBSD Handbook 80 mailing list . Important changes to the way ports work will be announced there. You can always find more detailed information on the latest changes by looking at the bsd.port.mk CVS log. _4_._7_._1_3 _T_h_a_t _i_s _I_t_, _F_o_l_k_s_! Boy, this sure was a long tutorial, wasn't it? Thanks for following us to here, really. Well, now that you know how to do a port, let us go at it and convert every thing in the world into ports! That is the easiest way to start contributing to the FreeBSD Project! :) Part II System Administration _5_. _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_a_k_e _H_a_m_b_y . 6 October 1995. This large section of the handbook discusses the basics of building your own custom kernel for FreeBSD. This section is appropriate for both novice system administrators and those with advanced Unix experience. FreeBSD Handbook 81 _5_._1 _W_h_y _B_u_i_l_d _a _C_u_s_t_o_m _K_e_r_n_e_l_? Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage every Unix system administrator must endure. This process, while time-consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support every possible SCSI and network card, along with tons of other rarely used hardware support, a custom kernel only contains support for _y_o_u_r PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits: It will take less time to boot because it does not have to spend time probing for hardware which you do not have. A custom kernel often uses less memory, which is important because the kernel is the one process which must always be present in memory, and so all of that unused code ties up pages of RAM that your programs would oth erwise be able to use. Therefore, on a system with limited RAM, building a custom kernel is of critical importance. Finally, there are several kernel options which you can tune to fit your needs, and device driver support for things like sound cards which you can include in your kernel but are _n_o_t present in the GENERIC kernel. _5_._2 _B_u_i_l_d_i_n_g _a_n_d _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _a _C_u_s_t_o_m _K_e_r_n_e_l First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here represent ing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are i386/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and com pile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. Notice the logical organization of the directory tree, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. Also, anything inside the i386 directory deals with PC hardware only, while everything outside the i386 direc tory is common to all platforms which FreeBSD could potentially be ported to. _N_o_t_e_: If there is _n_o_t a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall (as root), choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. Next, move to the i386/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: # cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf # cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. _N_o_t_e_: You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get ``permission denied'' errors. FreeBSD Handbook 82 Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the _b_i_b_l_i_o_g_r_a_p_h_y (section 26., page 492). Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. If you have build a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _F_i_l_e (section 5.3, page 82) section slowly and carefully. _N_o_t_e_: If you are trying to upgrade your kernel from an older version of FreeBSD, you will probably have to get a new version of config(8) from the same place you got the new kernel sources. It is located in /usr/src/usr.sbin, so you will need to download those sources as well. Re-build and install it before running the next commands. When you are finished, type the following to compile and install your kernel: # /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL # cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL # make depend # make # make install The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old ker nel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some _t_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g (section 5.5, page 98) instructions at the end of this document. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel _d_o_e_s _n_o_t _b_o_o_t (section 5.5, page 98). _N_o_t_e_: If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some _d_e_v_i_c_e _n_o_d_e_s (section 5.4, page 97) to your /dev directory before you can use them. _5_._3 _T_h_e _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _F_i_l_e The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. FreeBSD Handbook 83 The kernel is currently being moved to a better organization of the option han dling. Traditionally, each option in the config file was simply converted into a -D switch for the CFLAGS line of the kernel Makefile. Naturally, this caused a creeping optionism, with nobody really knowing which option has been refer enced in what files. In the new scheme, every #ifdef that is intended to be dependent upon an option gets this option out of an opt__f_o_o.h declaration file created in the compile directory by config. The list of valid options for config lives in two files: options that do not depend on the architecture are listed in /sys/conf/options, architecture-dependent ones in /sys/_a_r_c_h/conf/options._a_r_c_h, with _a_r_c_h being for example i386. _5_._3_._1 _M_a_n_d_a_t_o_r_y _K_e_y_w_o_r_d_s These keywords are required in every kernel you build. machine ``i386'' The first keyword is machine, which, since FreeBSD only runs on Intel 386 and compatible chips, is i386. _N_o_t_e_: that any keyword which contains numbers used as text must be enclosed in quotation marks, otherwise con fig gets confused and thinks you mean the actual number 386. cpu ``_c_p_u___t_y_p_e'' The next keyword is cpu, which includes support for each CPU sup ported by FreeBSD. The possible values of _c_p_u___t_y_p_e include: I386_CPU I486_CPU I586_CPU I686_CPU and multiple instances of the cpu line may be present with differ ent values of _c_p_u___t_y_p_e as are present in the GENERIC kernel. For a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the cpu you have. If, for example, you have an Intel Pentium, use I586_CPU for _c_p_u___t_y_p_e. ident _m_a_c_h_i_n_e___n_a_m_e Next, we have ident, which is the identification of the kernel. You should change this from GENERIC to whatever you named your ker nel, in this example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in ident will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (if you want to build an experimental kernel, for example). Note that, as with machine and cpu, enclose your kernel's name in FreeBSD Handbook 84 quotation marks if it contains any numbers. Since this name is passed to the C compiler as a -D switch, do not use names like DEBUG, or something that could be confused with another machine or CPU name, like vax. maxusers _n_u_m_b_e_r This file sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simul taneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least four, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to one, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a man page will start up nine processes to filter, decom press, and view it. Setting maxusers to 4 will allow you to have up to 84 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for anyone. If, however, you see the dreaded ``proc table full'' error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like Walnut Creek CDROM's FTP site), you can always increase this number and rebuild. _N_o_t_e_: maxuser does _n_o_t limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which _d_o_e_s limit the number of simultaneous _r_e_m_o_t_e _l_o_g_i_n_s is _p_s_e_u_d_o_-_d_e_v_i_c_e _p_t_y _1_6 (section 5.3.10, page 96). config _k_e_r_n_e_l___n_a_m_e root on _r_o_o_t___d_e_v_i_c_e This line specifies the location and name of the kernel. Tradi tionally the kernel is called vmunix but in FreeBSD, it is aptly named kernel. You should always use kernel for _k_e_r_n_e_l___n_a_m_e because changing it will render numerous system utilities inoperative. The second part of the line specifies the disk and partition where the root filesystem and kernel can be found. Typically this will be wd0 for systems with non-SCSI drives, or sd0 for systems with SCSI drives. _5_._3_._2 _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _O_p_t_i_o_n_s These lines provide kernel support for various filesystems and other options. options MATH_EMULATE This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a Pentium, FreeBSD Handbook 85 a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX with a separate 387 or 487 chip, you can comment this line out. _N_o_t_e_: The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are _n_o_t very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accu racy, I recommend that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATE to use the superior GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options ``COMPAT_43'' Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options BOUNCE_BUFFERS ISA devices and EISA devices operating in an ISA compatibility mode can only perform DMA (Direct Memory Access) to memory below 16 megabytes. This option enables such devices to work in systems with more than 16 megabytes of memory. options UCONSOLE Allow users to grab the console, useful for X Windows. For exam ple, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any `write', `talk', and other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options SYSVSHM This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X Windows, which many graph ics-intensive programs (such as the movie player XAnim, and Linux DOOM) will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use the X Window System, you will definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. _N_o_t_e_: The ipcs(1) command will tell will list any pro cesses using each of these System V facilities. _5_._3_._3 _F_i_l_e_s_y_s_t_e_m _O_p_t_i_o_n_s These options add support for various filesystems. You must include at least one of these to support the device you boot from; typically this will be FFS if FreeBSD Handbook 86 you boot from a hard drive, or NFS if you are booting a diskless workstation from Ethernet. You can include other commonly-used filesystems in the kernel, but feel free to comment out support for filesystems you use less often (per haps the MS-DOS filesystem?), since they will be dynamically loaded from the Loadable Kernel Module directory /lkm the first time you mount a partition of that type. options FFS The basic hard drive filesystem; leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options NFS Network Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a Unix file server over Ethernet, you can comment this out. options MSDOSFS MS-DOS Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS parti tion, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options ``CD9660'' ISO 9660 filesystem for CD-ROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CD-ROM drive or only mount data CD's occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CD's do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS Process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like ps(1) to give you more information on what processes are running. options MFS Memory-mapped file system. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab and then reboot or type mount /tmp: /dev/wd1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 FreeBSD Handbook 87 _N_o_t_e_: Replace the /dev/wd1s2b with the name of your swap partition, which will be listed in your /etc/fstab as follows: /dev/wd1s2b none swap sw 0 0 _N_o_t_e_: Also, the MFS filesystem can _n_o_t be dynamically loaded, so you _m_u_s_t compile it into your kernel if you want to experiment with it. options "EXT2FS" Linux's native file system. With ext2fs support you are able to read and write to Linux partitions. This is useful if you dual- boot FreeBSD and Linux and want to share data between the two sys tems. options QUOTA Enable disk quotas. If you have a public access system, and do not want users to be able to overflow the /home partition, you can establish disk quotas for each user. Refer to the _D_i_s_k _Q_u_o_t_a_s (section 10., page 194) section for more information. _5_._3_._4 _B_a_s_i_c _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s _a_n_d _D_e_v_i_c_e_s These sections describe the basic disk, tape, and CD-ROM controllers supported by FreeBSD. There are separate sections for _S_C_S_I (section 5.3.5, page 88) con trollers and _n_e_t_w_o_r_k (section 5.3.8, page 92) cards. controller isa0 All PC's supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), then you cannot run FreeBSD at this time. controller pci0 Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto- detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to the ISA bus. controller fdc0 Floppy drive controller: fd0 is the ``A:'' floppy drive, and fd1 is the ``B:'' drive. ft0 is a QIC-80 tape drive attached to the floppy controller. Comment out any lines corresponding to devices you do not have. _N_o_t_e_: QIC-80 tape support requires a separate filter pro gram called ft(8), see the manual page for details. controller wdc0 FreeBSD Handbook 88 This is the primary IDE controller. wd0 and wd1 are the master and slave hard drive, respectively. wdc1 is a secondary IDE controller where you might have a third or fourth hard drive, or an IDE CD- ROM. Comment out the lines which do not apply (if you have a SCSI hard drive, you will probably want to comment out all six lines, for example). device wcd0 " This device provides IDE CD-ROM support. Be sure to leave wdc0 uncommented, and wdc1 if you have more than one IDE controller and your CD-ROM is on the second one card. To use this, you must also include the line options ATAPI. device npx0 at isa? port ``IO_NPX'' irq 13 vector npxintr npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. It is _N_O_T optional. device wt0 at isa? port 0x300 bio irq 5 drq 1 vector wtintr Wangtek and Archive QIC-02/QIC-36 tape drive support Proprietary CD-ROM support The following drivers are for the so-called _p_r_o_p_r_i_e_t_a_r_y CD-ROM drives. These drives have their own controller card or might plug into a sound card such as the SoundBlaster 16. They are _n_o_t IDE or SCSI. Most older single-speed and double-speed CD-ROMs use these interfaces, while newer quad-speeds are likely to be _I_D_E (section 5.3.4, page 88) or _S_C_S_I (section 5.3.5, page 88). device mcd0 at isa? port 0x300 bio irq 10 vector mcdintr Mitsumi CD-ROM (LU002, LU005, FX001D). device scd0 at isa? port 0x230 bio Sony CD-ROM (CDU31, CDU33A). controller matcd0 at isa? port ? bio Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM (sold by Creative Labs for SoundBlaster). _5_._3_._5 _S_C_S_I _D_e_v_i_c_e _S_u_p_p_o_r_t This section describes the various SCSI controllers and devices supported by FreeBSD. SCSI Controllers FreeBSD Handbook 89 The next ten or so lines include support for different kinds of SCSI controllers. Comment out all except for the one(s) you have: controller bt0 at isa? port ``IO_BT0'' bio irq ? vector btintr Most Buslogic controllers controller uha0 at isa? port ``IO_UHA0'' bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr UltraStor 14F and 34F controller ahc0 Adaptec 274x/284x/294x controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq ? vector ahbintr Adaptec 174x controller aha0 at isa? port ``IO_AHA0'' bio irq ? drq 5 vector ahaintr Adaptec 154x controller aic0 at isa? port 0x340 bio irq 11 vector aicintr Adaptec 152x and sound cards using Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) controller nca0 at isa? port 0x1f88 bio irq 10 vector ncaintr ProAudioSpectrum cards using NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) controller wds0 at isa? port 0x350 bio irq 15 drq 6 vector wdsintr Western Digital WD7000 controller controller ncr0 NCR 53C810, 53C815, 53C825, 53C860, 53C875 PCI SCSI controller options ``SCSI_DELAY=15'' This causes the kernel to pause 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. FreeBSD Handbook 90 controller scbus0 If you have any SCSI controllers, this line provides generic SCSI support. If you do not have SCSI, you can comment this, and the following three lines, out. device sd0 Support for SCSI hard drives. device st0 Support for SCSI tape drives. device cd0 Support for SCSI CD-ROM drives. Note that the number 00 in the above entries is slightly misleading: all these devices are automatically configured as they are found, regardless of how many of them are hooked up to the SCSI bus(es), and which target IDs they have. If you want to ``wire down'' specific target IDs to particular devices, refer to the appropriate section of the LINT kernel config file. _5_._3_._6 _C_o_n_s_o_l_e_, _B_u_s _M_o_u_s_e_, _a_n_d _X _S_e_r_v_e_r _S_u_p_p_o_r_t You must choose one of these two console types, and, if you plan to use the X Window System with the vt220 console, enable the XSERVER option and optionally, a bus mouse or PS/2 mouse device. device sc0 at isa? port ``IO_KBD' tty irq 1 vector scintr sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles an SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a termi nal database library like _t_e_r_m_c_a_p, it should not matter much whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to ``scoansi'' if full- screen programs have trouble running under this console. device vt0 at isa? port ``IO_KBD'' tty irq 1 vector pcrint This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backwards compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also, set your TERM variable to ``vt100'' or ``vt220'' when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where the _t_e_r_m_c_a_p or _t_e_r_m_i_n_f_o entries for the sc0 device are often not available -- ``vt100'' should be available on virtually any platform. FreeBSD Handbook 91 options ``PCVT_FREEBSD=210'' Required with the vt0 console driver. options XSERVER Only applicable with the vt0 console driver. This includes code required to run the XFree86 X Window Server under the vt0 console driver. device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq 5 vector ms Use this device if you have a Logitech or ATI InPort bus mouse card. _N_o_t_e_: If you have a serial mouse, ignore these two lines, and instead, make sure the appropriate _s_e_r_i_a_l (section 5.3.7, page 91) port is enabled (probably COM1). device psm0 at isa? port ``IO_KBD'' conflicts tty irq 12 vector psmintr Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. _5_._3_._7 _S_e_r_i_a_l _a_n_d _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _P_o_r_t_s Nearly all systems have these. If you are attaching a printer to one of these ports, the _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g (section 7., page 122) section of the handbook is very use ful. If you are using modem, _D_i_a_l_u_p _a_c_c_e_s_s (section 14.3, page 277) provides extensive detail on serial port configuration for use with such devices. device sio0 at isa? port ``IO_COM1'' tty irq 4 vector siointr " sio0 through sio3 are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS world. Note that if you have an inter nal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2 you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons IRQ 2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for sio(4) for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses of the form 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards, making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are sup ported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq 7 vector lptintr lpt0 through lpt2 are the three printer ports you could conceivably have. Most people just have one, though, so feel free to comment out the other two lines if you do not have them. FreeBSD Handbook 92 _5_._3_._8 _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_i_n_g FreeBSD, as with Unix in general, places a _b_i_g emphasis on networking. There fore, even if you do not have an Ethernet card, pay attention to the mandatory options and the dial-up networking support. options INET Networking support. Leave it in even if you do not plan to be con nected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback net working (i.e. making network connections within your PC) so this is essentially mandatory. Ethernet cards The next lines enable support for various Ethernet cards. If you do not have a network card, you can comment out all of these lines. Otherwise, you will want to leave in support for your particular Ethernet card(s): device de0 Ethernet adapters based on Digital Equipment DC21040, DC21041 or DC21140 chips device fxp0 Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B device vx0 3Com 3C590 and 3C595 (buggy) device cx0 at isa? port 0x240 net irq 15 drq 7 vector cxintr Cronyx/Sigma multiport sync/async (with Cisco or PPP framing) device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 net irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector edintr Western Digital and SMC 80xx and 8216; Novell NE1000 and NE2000; 3Com 3C503; HP PC Lan Plus (HP27247B and HP27252A) device el0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 9 vector elintr 3Com 3C501 (slow!) device eg0 at isa? port 0x310 net irq 5 vector egintr 3Com 3C505 device ep0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 vector epintr 3Com 3C509 (buggy) FreeBSD Handbook 93 device fe0 at isa? port 0x240 net irq ? vector feintr Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A Ethernet device fea0 at isa? net irq ? vector feaintr DEC DEFEA EISA FDDI adapter device ie0 at isa? port 0x360 net irq 7 iomem 0xd0000 vector ieintr AT&T StarLAN 10 and EN100; 3Com 3C507; unknown NI5210; Intel EtherExpress 16 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 vector le_intr Digital Equipment EtherWorks 2 and EtherWorks 3 (DEPCA, DE100, DE101, DE200, DE201, DE202, DE203, DE204, DE205, DE422) device lnc0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 drq 0 vector lncintr Lance/PCnet cards (Isolan, Novell NE2100, NE32-VL) device ze0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector zeintr IBM/National Semiconductor PCMCIA ethernet controller. device zp0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 vector zpintr 3Com PCMCIA Etherlink III _N_o_t_e_: With certain cards (notably the NE2000) you will have to change the port and/or IRQ since there is no ``standard'' location for these cards. pseudo-device loop loop is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to _l_o_c_a_l_h_o_s_t (a.k.a. 127.0.0.1) it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. Mandatory. pseudo-device ether ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card and includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl _n_u_m_b_e_r sl is for SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connections, as well as more pow erful. The _n_u_m_b_e_r after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. This handbook has more information on setting up a SLIP _c_l_i_e_n_t (section 15.3, page 318) or _s_e_r_v_e_r (section 15.4, FreeBSD Handbook 94 page 321). pseudo-device ppp _n_u_m_b_e_r ppp is for kernel-mode PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) support for dial-up Internet connections. There is also version of PPP imple mented as a user application that uses the tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. If you still want to use this PPP driver, read the _k_e_r_n_e_l_-_m_o_d_e _P_P_P (section 15.2, page 309) section of the handbook. As with the sl device, _n_u_m_b_e_r specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun _n_u_m_b_e_r tun is used by the user-mode PPP software. This program is easy to set up and very fast. It also has special features such as auto matic dial-on-demand. The number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the _u_s_e_r_-_m_o_d_e _P_P_P (sec tion 15.1, page 294) section of the handbook for more information. pseudo-device bpfilter _n_u_m_b_e_r Berkeley packet filter. This pseudo-device allows network inter faces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g. an ethernet). These packets can be cap tured to disk and/or examined with the tcpdump(1) program. Note that implementation of this capability can seriously compromise your overall network security. The _n_u_m_b_e_r after bpfilter is the number of interfaces that can be examined simultaneously. Optional, not recommended except for those who are fully aware of the poten tial pitfalls. Not all network cards support this capability. _5_._3_._9 _S_o_u_n_d _c_a_r_d_s This is the first section containing lines that are not in the GENERIC kernel. To include sound card support, you will have to copy the appropriate lines from the LINT kernel (which contains support for _e_v_e_r_y device) as follows: controller snd0 Generic sound driver code. Required for all of the following sound cards except pca. device pas0 at isa? port 0x388 irq 10 drq 6 vector pasintr ProAudioSpectrum digital audio and MIDI. device sb0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 7 conflicts drq 1 vector sbintr SoundBlaster digital audio. FreeBSD Handbook 95 _N_o_t_e_: If your SoundBlaster is on a different IRQ (such as 5), change irq 7 to, for example, irq 5 and remove the conflicts keyword. Also, you must add the line: options ``SBC_IRQ=5'' device sbxvi0 at isa? drq 5 SoundBlaster 16 digital 16-bit audio. _N_o_t_e_: If your SB16 is on a different 16-bit DMA channel (such as 6 or 7), change the drq 5 keyword appropriately, and then add the line: options "SB16_DMA=6" device sbmidi0 at isa? port 0x330 SoundBlaster 16 MIDI interface. If you have a SoundBlaster 16, you must include this line, or the kernel will not compile. device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 10 drq 1 vector gusintr Gravis Ultrasound. device mss0 at isa? port 0x530 irq 10 drq 1 vector adintr Microsoft Sound System. device opl0 at isa? port 0x388 conflicts AdLib FM-synthesis audio. Include this line for AdLib, Sound Blaster, and ProAudioSpectrum users, if you want to play MIDI songs with a program such as playmidi (in the ports collection). device mpu0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 6 drq 0 Roland MPU-401 stand-alone card. device uart0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 5 vector ``m6850intr'' Stand-alone 6850 UART for MIDI. device pca0 at isa? port ``IO_TIMER1'' tty " Digital audio through PC speaker. This is going to be very poor sound quality and quite CPU-intensive, so you have been warned (but it does not require a sound card). _N_o_t_e_: There is some additional documentation in /usr/src/sys/i386/isa/sound/sound.doc. Also, if you add any of these devices, be sure to create the sound _d_e_v_i_c_e _n_o_d_e_s (section 5.4, page 97). FreeBSD Handbook 96 _5_._3_._1_0 _P_s_e_u_d_o_-_d_e_v_i_c_e_s Pseudo-device drivers are parts of the kernel that act like device drivers but do not correspond to any actual hardware in the machine. The _n_e_t_w_o_r_k_-_r_e_l_a_t_e_d (section 5.3.8, page 92) pseudo-devices are in that section, while the remain der are here. pseudo-device gzip gzip allows you to run FreeBSD programs that have been compressed with gzip. The programs in /stand are compressed so it is a good idea to have this option in your kernel. pseudo-device log log is used for logging of kernel error messages. Mandatory. pseudo-device pty _n_u_m_b_e_r " pty is a ``pseudo-terminal'' or simulated login port. It is used by incoming tteellnneett and rrllooggiinn sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. The _n_u_m_b_e_r indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than GENERIC default of 16 simul taneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 64. pseudo-device snp _n_u_m_b_e_r Snoop device. This pseudo-device allows one terminal session to watch another using the watch(8) command. Note that implementation of this capability has important security and privacy implications. The _n_u_m_b_e_r after snp is the total number of simultaneous snoop ses sions. Optional. pseudo-device vn Vnode driver. Allows a file to be treated as a device after being set up with the vnconfig(8) command. This driver can be useful for manipulating floppy disk images and using a file as a swap device (e.g. an MS Windows swap file). Optional. pseudo-device ccd _n_u_m_b_e_r Concatenated disks. This pseudo-device allows you to concatenate multiple disk partitions into one large ``meta''-disk. The _n_u_m_b_e_r after ccd is the total number of concatenated disks (not total num ber of disks that can be concatenated) that can be created. (See ccd(4) and ccdconfig(8) man pages for more details.) Optional. _5_._3_._1_1 _J_o_y_s_t_i_c_k_, _P_C _S_p_e_a_k_e_r_, _M_i_s_c_e_l_l_a_n_e_o_u_s This section describes some miscellaneous hardware devices supported by FreeBSD. Note that none of these lines are included in the GENERIC kernel, you FreeBSD Handbook 97 will have to copy them from this handbook or the LINT kernel (which contains support for _e_v_e_r_y device): device joy0 at isa? port ``IO_GAME'' PC joystick device. pseudo-device speaker Supports IBM BASIC-style noises through the PC speaker. Some fun programs which use this are /usr/sbin/spkrtest, which is a shell script that plays some simple songs, and /usr/games/piano which lets you play songs using the keyboard as a simple piano (this file only exists if you have installed the _g_a_m_e_s package). Also, the excellent text role-playing game NetHack (in the ports collection) can be configured to use this device to play songs when you play musical instruments in the game. See also the _p_c_a_0 (section 5.3.9, page 95) device. _5_._4 _M_a_k_i_n_g _D_e_v_i_c_e _N_o_d_e_s Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding ``node'' entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create _a_l_l of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: controller wcd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with wcd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as `c', or preceded by the letter 'r', which means a `raw' device. It turns out that those files are not there, so I must change to the /dev directory and type: # sh MAKEDEV wcd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now wcd0c and rwcd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the command: # sh MAKEDEV snd0 creates the appropriate entries. Note: when creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be FreeBSD Handbook 98 desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See man fbtab for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. _N_o_t_e_: All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. _5_._5 _I_f _S_o_m_e_t_h_i_n_g _G_o_e_s _W_r_o_n_g There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom ker nel. They are: Config command fails If the config command fails when you give it your kernel descrip tion, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortu nately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error you can skip to the problem in vi by typing ``17G'' in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. Make command fails If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your ker nel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the FreeBSD general questions mailing list with your kernel con figuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. Kernel will not boot " If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply type the name of the kernel you want to boot from (i.e. ``kernel.old'') at the FreeBSD boot prompt instead of pressing return. When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configura tion file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the dmesg(8) FreeBSD Handbook 99 command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. _N_o_t_e_: If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on ker nel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper ``kernel'' location or com mands such as ps(1) will not work properly. The proper command to ``unlock'' the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: # chflags noschg /kernel And, if you want to ``lock'' your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: # chflags schg /kernel Kernel works, but ps does not work any more! If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, an experimental ``2.2.0'' kernel on a 2.1.0-RELEASE system, many sys tem-status commands like ps(1) and vmstat(8) will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these util ities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating sys tem. _6_. _S_e_c_u_r_i_t_y _6_._1 _D_E_S_, _M_D_5_, _a_n_d _C_r_y_p_t _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_a_r_r_e_t_t _W_o_l_l_m_a_n 24 September 1995. In order to protect the security of passwords on UN*X systems from being easily exposed, passwords have traditionally been scrambled in some way. Starting with Bell Labs' Seventh Edition Unix, passwords were encrypted using what the security people call a ``one-way hash function''. That is to say, the password is transformed in such a way that the original password cannot be regained except by brute-force searching the space of possible passwords. Unfortu nately, the only secure method that was available to the AT&T researchers at the time was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This causes only min imal difficulty for commercial vendors, but is a serious problem for an operat ing system like FreeBSD where all the source code is freely available, because FreeBSD Handbook 100 national governments in many places like to place restrictions on cross-border transport of DES and other encryption software. So, the FreeBSD team was faced with a dilemma: how could we provide compatibil ity with all those UNIX systems out there while still not running afoul of the law? We decided to take a dual-track approach: we would make distributions which contained only a non-regulated password scrambler, and then provide as a separate add-on library the DES-based password hash. The password-scrambling function was moved out of the C library to a separate library, called `libcrypt' because the name of the C function to implement it is `crypt'. In FreeBSD 1.x and some pre-release 2.0 snapshots, the non-regulated scrambler uses an insecure function written by Nate Williams; in subsequent releases this was replaced by a mechanism using the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD5 one-way hash function. Because neither of these functions involve encryption, they are believed to be exportable from the US and importable into many other countries. Meanwhile, work was also underway on the DES-based password hash function. First, a version of the `crypt' function which was written outside the US was imported, thus synchronizing the US and non-US code. Then, the library was modified and split into two; the DES `libcrypt' contains only the code involved in performing the one-way password hash, and a separate `libcipher' was created with the entry points to actually perform encryption. The code was partitioned in this way to make it easier to get an export license for the compiled library. _6_._1_._1 _R_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _`_c_r_y_p_t_' _m_e_c_h_a_n_i_s_m It is fairly easy to recognize whether a particular password string was created using the DES- or MD5-based hash function. MD5 password strings always begin with the characters `$1$'. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the `$' character, so a relatively short string which doesn't begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. Determining which library is being used on your system is fairly easy for most programs, except for those like `init' which are statically linked. (For those programs, the only way is to try them on a known password and see if it works.) Programs which use `crypt' are linked against `libcrypt', which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: $ cd /usr/lib $ ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 13 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 18 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 15 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be `libscrypt' rather than `libdescrypt'. _6_._2 _S_/_K_e_y _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_a_r_r_e_t_t _W_o_l_l_m_a_n FreeBSD Handbook 101 25 September 1995. S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function (in our version, this is MD4 for compatibility; other versions have used MD5 and DES- MAC). S/Key has been a standard part of all FreeBSD distributions since ver sion 1.1.5, and is also implemented on a large and growing number of other sys tems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual UNIX-style or Kerberos password; we will call this a ``UNIX password''. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key `key' program and accepted by the `keyinit' program and the login prompt; we will call this a ``one-time password''. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the `key' pro gram (and sometimes the `keyinit' program) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a ``secret password'' or just unqualified ``pass word''. The secret password does not necessarily have anything to do with your UNIX password (while they can be the same, this is not recommended). While UNIX passwords are limited to eight characters in length, your S/Key secret password can be as long as you like; I use seven-word phrases. In general, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the UNIX password system. There are in addition two other sorts of data involved in the S/Key system; one is called the ``seed'' or (confusingly) ``key'', and consists of two letters and five digits, and the other is the ``iteration count'' and is a number between 100 and 1. S/Key constructs a one-time password from these components by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying a one-way hash (the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD4 secure hash function) iteration-count times, and turning the result into six short English words. The `login' and `su' pro grams keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenti cated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous pass word. Because a one-way hash function is used, it is not possible to generate future one-time passwords having overheard one which was successfully used; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and login program in sync. (When you get the iteration count down to 1, it is time to reinitialize S/Key.) There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The `key' program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The `keyinit' program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time pass word. The `keyinfo' program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the `login' and `su' programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The `login' program is also capable of disallowing the use of UNIX passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the `keyinit' program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the `keyinit' program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the `key' FreeBSD Handbook 102 program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the `key' program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the `key' program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere (like at a conference). _6_._2_._1 _S_e_c_u_r_e _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n _i_n_i_t_i_a_l_i_z_a_t_i_o_n To initialize S/Key, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine), use the `keyinit' command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: $ keyinit Updating wollman: ) these will not appear if you Old key: ha73895 ) have not used S/Key before Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: ) I typed my pass phrase here Again secret password: ) I typed it again ID wollman s/key is 99 ha73896 ) discussed below SAG HAS FONT GOUT FATE BOOM ) There is a lot of information here. At the `Enter secret password:' prompt, you should enter some password or phrase (I use phrases of minimum seven words) which will be needed to generate login keys. The line starting `ID' gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. _6_._2_._2 _I_n_s_e_c_u_r_e _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n _i_n_i_t_i_a_l_i_z_a_t_i_o_n To initialize S/Key or change your password or seed over an insecure connec tion, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the `key' program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust (we will show the latter). You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the `keyinit -s' command: $ keyinit -s Updating wollman: Old key: kh94741 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the skey command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 ) I typed this Enter new key [default kh94742]: s/key 100 kh94742 To accept the default seed (which the `keyinit' program confusingly calls a `key'), press return. Then move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk FreeBSD Handbook 103 accessory, and give it the same parameters: $ key 100 kh94742 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: ) I typed my secret password HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by `key' over to the `keyinit' program: s/key access password: HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO ID wollman s/key is 100 kh94742 HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. _6_._2_._3 _D_i_v_e_r_s_i_o_n_: _a _l_o_g_i_n _p_r_o_m_p_t Before explaining how to generate one-time passwords, we should go over an S/Key login prompt: $ telnet himalia Trying 18.26.0.186... Connected to himalia.lcs.mit.edu. Escape character is '^]'. s/key 92 hi52030 Password: Note that, before prompting for a password, the login program prints out the iteration number and seed which you will need in order to generate the appro priate key. You will also find a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. If this machine were configured to disallow UNIX passwords over a connection from my machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation `(s/key required)', indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. _6_._2_._4 _G_e_n_e_r_a_t_i_n_g _a _s_i_n_g_l_e _o_n_e_-_t_i_m_e _p_a_s_s_w_o_r_d Now, to generate the one-time password needed to answer this login prompt, we use a trusted machine and the `key' program. (There are versions of the `key' program from DOS and Windows machines, and there is an S/Key desk accessory for Macintosh computers as well.) The command-line `key' program takes as its parameters the iteration count and seed; you can cut-and-paste right from the login prompt starting at ``key'' to the end of the line. Thus: $ key 92 hi52030 ) pasted from previous section Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: ) I typed my secret password ADEN BED WOLF HAW HOT STUN FreeBSD Handbook 104 And in the other window: s/key 92 hi52030 ) from previous section Password: (turning echo on) Password:ADEN BED WOLF HAW HOT STUN Last login: Wed Jun 28 15:31:00 from halloran-eldar.l [etc.] This is the easiest mechanism _i_f you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator10 , that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting brower. _6_._2_._5 _G_e_n_e_r_a_t_i_n_g _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _o_n_e_-_t_i_m_e _p_a_s_s_w_o_r_d_s Sometimes we have to go places where no trusted machines or connections are available. In this case, it is possible to use the `key' command to generate a number of one-time passwords in the same command; these can then be printed out. For example: $ key -n 25 57 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: 33: WALT THY MALI DARN NIT HEAD 34: ASK RICE BEAU GINA DOUR STAG [...] 56: AMOS BOWL LUG FAT CAIN INCH 57: GROW HAYS TUN DISH CAR BALM The `-n 25' requests twenty-five keys in sequence; the `57' indicates the _e_n_d_ _i_n_g iteration number; and the rest is as before. Note that these are printed out in _r_e_v_e_r_s_e order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into `lpr'. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. _6_._2_._6 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _u_s_e _o_f _U_N_I_X _p_a_s_s_w_o_r_d_s The configuration file /etc/skey.access can be used to configure restrictions on the use of UNIX passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. The complete format of the file is docu mented in the _s_k_e_y_._a_c_c_e_s_s(5) manual page; there are also some security cautions there which should be read before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (which is the default state as FreeBSD is shipped), then all users will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, UNIX passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common ____________________ 10. FreeBSD Handbook 105 sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 18.26.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user jrl permit port ttyd0 The first line (`permit internet') allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (`permit user') allows the specified user to use UNIX passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the `key' program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (`permit port') allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. _6_._3 _K_e_r_b_e_r_o_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _M_a_r_k _M_u_r_r_a_y (based on contribution by Mark Dapoz ). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribu tion, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and is thus available to system owners outside those countries. For those needing to get a legal foreign distribution of this software, please _D_O _N_O_T get it from a USA or Canada site. You will get that site in _b_i_g trou ble! A legal copy of this is available from ftp.internat.freebsd.org, which is in South Africa and an official FreeBSD mirror site. _6_._3_._1 _C_r_e_a_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _i_n_i_t_i_a_l _d_a_t_a_b_a_s_e This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/ker berosIV and check that only the following files are present: grunt# cd /etc/kerberosIV grunt# ls README krb.conf krb.realms FreeBSD Handbook 106 If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be _G_R_O_N_D_A_R_._Z_A and the server is _g_r_u_n_t_._g_r_o_n_ _d_a_r_._z_a. We edit or create the krb.conf file: grunt# cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines con tain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a ``key distribution centre''. The words ``admin server'' following a hosts name means that host also provides an admin istrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please con sult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add _g_r_u_n_t_._g_r_o_n_d_a_r_._z_a to the _G_R_O_N_D_A_R_._Z_A realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the _._g_r_o_n_d_a_r_._z_a domain in the _G_R_O_N_D_A_R_._Z_A realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: grunt# cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the _s_p_e_c_i_f_i_c system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Centre). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: FreeBSD Handbook 107 grunt# kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. grunt# kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. _6_._3_._2 _M_a_k_i_n_g _i_t _a_l_l _r_u_n Two principals need to be added to the database for _e_a_c_h system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos pass words and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: FreeBSD Handbook 108 grunt# kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt , Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt , Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit _6_._3_._3 _C_r_e_a_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _s_e_r_v_e_r _f_i_l_e We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved _b_y _s_e_c_u_r_e _m_e_a_n_s to each Kerberos client's FreeBSD Handbook 109 /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. grunt# ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: grunt# mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the -new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: grumble# mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab grumble# chmod 600 srvtab _6_._3_._4 _P_o_p_u_l_a_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _d_a_t_a_b_a_s_e We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user _j_a_n_e. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: FreeBSD Handbook 110 grunt# kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: , Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit _6_._3_._5 _T_e_s_t_i_n_g _i_t _a_l_l _o_u_t First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagi cally get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. grunt# kerberos & grunt# Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA grunt# kadmind -n & grunt# KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! FreeBSD Handbook 111 Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id _j_a_n_e that we created above: grunt$ kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: grunt$ klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: grunt$ passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. _6_._3_._6 _A_d_d_i_n_g _s_u _p_r_i_v_i_l_e_g_e_s Kerberos allows us to give _e_a_c_h user who needs root privileges their own _s_e_p_a_ _r_a_t_e supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to _r_o_o_t. This is controlled by having an instance of _r_o_o_t associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry _j_a_n_e_._r_o_o_t in the Kerberos database: FreeBSD Handbook 112 grunt# kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root , Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: grunt# kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: grunt# cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: [jane@grunt 10407] su Password: grunt# and take a look at what tokens we have: FreeBSD Handbook 113 grunt# klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA _6_._3_._7 _U_s_i_n_g _o_t_h_e_r _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_s In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a _<_p_r_i_n_c_i_p_a_l_>_._<_i_n_s_t_a_n_c_e_> of the form _<_u_s_e_r_n_a_m_e_>_.root will allow that _<_u_s_e_r_n_a_m_e_> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: grunt# cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: [jane@grunt 10543] cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the _G_R_O_N_D_A_R_._Z_A realm who has authenticated themselves to _j_a_n_e or _j_a_c_k (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to _j_a_n_e's account or files on this system (_g_r_u_n_t) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: [jane@grumble 573] kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: [jane@grumble 574] rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 [jane@grunt 10567] Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up prin cipal _j_a_c_k with a null instance: FreeBSD Handbook 114 [jack@grumble 573] kinit [jack@grumble 574] rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 [jane@grunt 10578] _6_._4 _F_i_r_e_w_a_l_l_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_a_r_y _P_a_l_m_e_r and Alex Nash . Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. NNoottee: People often think that having a firewall between your compa nies internal network and the ``Big Bad Internet'' will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall sys tem is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A fire wall can only add another layer of security to your systems, but they will not be able to stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that bit easier. _6_._4_._1 _W_h_a_t _i_s _a _f_i_r_e_w_a_l_l_? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Inter net today. The first type is more properly called a ppaacckkeett ffiilltteerriinngg rroouutteerr, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as pprrooxxyy sseerrvveerrss, rely on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bbaassttiioonn hhoosstt) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bas tion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mecha nisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers avail able that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. FreeBSD Handbook 115 _6_._4_._1_._1 _P_a_c_k_e_t _f_i_l_t_e_r_i_n_g _r_o_u_t_e_r_s A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel, which com pares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code in it, which defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code, so that it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide if a packet should be passed on or not, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a ``rule chain''. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typi cally you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). _6_._4_._1_._2 _P_r_o_x_y _s_e_r_v_e_r_s Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called pprrooxxyy sseerrvveerrss as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and peo ple can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authenti cation mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including ``one-shot'' password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only cer tain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. _6_._4_._2 _W_h_a_t _d_o_e_s _I_P_F_W _a_l_l_o_w _m_e _t_o _d_o_? IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, ipfw(8). Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. FreeBSD Handbook 116 There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forward ing. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. _6_._4_._3 _E_n_a_b_l_i_n_g _I_P_F_W _o_n _F_r_e_e_B_S_D As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facil ities you want, and recompile your kernel. See _r_e_c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _k_e_r_n_e_l (sec tion 5., page 80) for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through syslogd(8). With out this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through syslogd(8) on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environ ments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the ipfw(8) utility: ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. _6_._4_._4 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _I_P_F_W The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the ipfw(8) utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used FreeBSD Handbook 117 to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. _6_._4_._4_._1 _A_l_t_e_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _I_P_F_W _r_u_l_e_s The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw [-N] _c_o_m_m_a_n_d [_i_n_d_e_x] _a_c_t_i_o_n [log] _p_r_o_t_o_c_o_l _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s [_o_p_t_i_o_n_s] There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The _c_o_m_m_a_n_d given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid _c_o_m_ _m_a_n_d_s are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The lloogg option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IIPPFFIIRREEWWAALLLL__VVEERRBBOOSSEE. Valid _a_c_t_i_o_n_s are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: ppaassss and aacccceepptt) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on FreeBSD Handbook 118 this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each _a_c_t_i_o_n will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The _p_r_o_t_o_c_o_l_s which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The _a_d_d_r_e_s_s specification is: ffrroomm <_a_d_d_r_e_s_s_/_m_a_s_k>[_p_o_r_t] ttoo <_a_d_d_r_e_s_s_/_m_a_s_k>[_p_o_r_t] [vviiaa <_i_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e>] You can only specify _p_o_r_t in conjunction with _p_r_o_t_o_c_o_l_s which support ports (UDP and TCP). The vviiaa is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an
is:
or
/mask-bits or
:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. mask-bits is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. mask-pattern is an IP address which will be FreeBSD Handbook 119 logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to spec ify ``any IP address''. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port[,port[,port[...]]] to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The _o_p_t_i_o_n_s available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions _s_p_e_c Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in _s_p_e_c. The supported list of IP options are: ssssrrrr (strict source route), llssrrrr (loose source route), rrrr (record packet route), and ttss (timestamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading '!'. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connec tion (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing _e_s_t_a_b_l_i_s_h_e_d rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags _f_l_a_g_s Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of _f_l_a_g_s. The supported flags are ffiinn, ssyynn, rrsstt, ppsshh, aacckk, and uurrgg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading '!'. icmptypes _t_y_p_e_s Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list _t_y_p_e_s. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 00 echo reply (ping reply), 33 destination unreachable, 55 redirect, 88 echo FreeBSD Handbook 120 request (ping request), and 1111 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with traceroute(8)). _6_._4_._4_._2 _L_i_s_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _I_P_F_W _r_u_l_e_s The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw [-atN] l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time list ing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the ipfw(8) util ity. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. _6_._4_._4_._3 _F_l_u_s_h_i_n_g _t_h_e _I_P_F_W _r_u_l_e_s The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. _6_._4_._4_._4 _C_l_e_a_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _I_P_F_W _p_a_c_k_e_t _c_o_u_n_t_e_r_s The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero [index] When used without an _i_n_d_e_x argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an _i_n_d_e_x is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. _6_._4_._5 _E_x_a_m_p_l_e _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_s _f_o_r _i_p_f_w This command will deny all packets from the host eevviill..ccrraacckkeerrss..oorrgg to the tel net port of the host nniiccee..ppeeooppllee..oorrgg by being forwarded by the router: ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire ccrraacckkeerrss..oorrgg network (a class C) to the nniiccee..ppeeooppllee..oorrgg machine (any port). ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org FreeBSD Handbook 121 If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: ipfw -a list or in the short form ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with ipfw -at l _6_._4_._6 _B_u_i_l_d_i_n_g _a _p_a_c_k_e_t _f_i_l_t_e_r_i_n_g _f_i_r_e_w_a_l_l NNoottee:: The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and I cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, I strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable log ging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for of `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your require ments alter. NNoottee:: If you use the logging versions of the aacccceepptt command, it can generate _l_a_r_g_e amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large ftp/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. As currently supplied, FreeBSD does not have the ability to load firewall rules at boot time. My suggestion is to put a call to a shell script in the /etc/net start script. Put the call early enough in the netstart file so that the fire wall is configured before any of the IP interfaces are configured. This means that there is no window during which time your network is open. The actual script used to load the rules is entirely up to you. There is cur rently no support in the ipfw utility for loading multiple rules in the one command. The system I use is to use the command: FreeBSD Handbook 122 # ipfw list to write a list of the current rules out to a file, and then use a text editor to prepend ``ipfw '' before all the lines. This will allow the script to be fed into /bin/sh and reload the rules into the kernel. Perhaps not the most effi cient way, but it works. The next problem is what your firewall should actually DDOO! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and tel net. Block aallll incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering As I said above, these are only _g_u_i_d_e_l_i_n_e_s. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. I cannot accept ANY responsi bility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. _7_. _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_e_a_n _K_e_l_l_y 30 September 1995 In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling FreeBSD Handbook 123 system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This section introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _t_h_e _s_p_o_o_l_i_n_g _s_y_s_t_e_m (section 7.3, page 124). _7_._1 _W_h_a_t _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_e_r _D_o_e_s LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a num ber of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as _j_o_b_s. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a _q_u_e_u_e for each printer. It can print _h_e_a_d_e_r _p_a_g_e_s (also known as _b_a_n_n_e_r or _b_u_r_s_t pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to another LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file, and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. _7_._2 _W_h_y _Y_o_u _S_h_o_u_l_d _U_s_e _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_e_r If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. FreeBSD Handbook 124 Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. _7_._3 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _U_p _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_i_n_g _S_y_s_t_e_m To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section _S_i_m_p_l_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4, page 124) to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section _A_d_v_a_n_c_e_d _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.6, page 149) to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. _7_._4 _S_i_m_p_l_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section _H_a_r_d_w_a_r_e _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4.1, page 124) gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section _S_o_f_t_w_a_r_e _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4.2, page 126) shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file /etc/printcap. If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _W_i_t_h _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_e_d _D_a_t_a _S_t_r_e_a_m _I_n_t_e_r_a_c_e_s (section 7.6.3.2, page 172). Although this section is called ``Simple Printer Setup,'' it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. _7_._4_._1 _H_a_r_d_w_a_r_e _S_e_t_u_p This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configu ration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section _S_o_f_t_w_a_r_e _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4.2, page 126). _7_._4_._1_._1 _P_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _C_a_b_l_e_s Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the fol lowing interfaces: FreeBSD Handbook 125 _S_e_r_i_a_l interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces some times need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat com plex communications options. _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usu ally no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their con figuration exceedingly simple. Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as ``Centronics'' interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports can also receive data from the printer, but only few printers need to send data back to the computer. And FreeBSD does not support two-way parallel communication yet. Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. So, which interface should you use? If you need two-way communication, use a serial port. FreeBSD does not yet support two-way communication over a parallel port. If you do not need two-way communication and can pick parallel or serial, prefer the parallel interface. It keeps a serial port free for other peripherals---such as a terminal or a modem---and is faster most of the time. It is also easier to configure. Finally, use whatever works. _7_._4_._1_._2 _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _P_o_r_t_s To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. FreeBSD Handbook 126 _7_._4_._1_._3 _S_e_r_i_a_l _P_o_r_t_s To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the ``proper serial cable'' is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A _m_o_d_e_m cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. A _n_u_l_l_-_m_o_d_e_m cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A _s_e_r_i_a_l _p_r_i_n_t_e_r cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the high est bps (bits per second, sometimes _b_a_u_d _r_a_t_e) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as _i_n_-_b_a_n_d or _s_o_f_t_w_a_r_e) flow control. Remember these set tings for the software configuration that follows. _7_._4_._2 _S_o_f_t_w_a_r_e _S_e_t_u_p This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: 1. Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 7.4.2.1, page 126) tells you what you need to do. 2. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n _M_o_d_e _f_o_r _t_h_e _P_a_r_ _a_l_l_e_l _P_o_r_t (section 7.4.2.1.2, page 128) gives details. 3. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s (section 7.4.2.1.3, page 129) gives some suggestions on how to do this. 4. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. Section _T_h_e _/_e_t_c_/_p_r_i_n_t_c_a_p _F_i_l_e (section 7.4.2.2, page 131) shows you how. _7_._4_._2_._1 _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of FreeBSD Handbook 127 devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type dmesg | grep sio_N where _N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see out put similar to the following sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type dmesg | grep lpt_N where _N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section _a_n_d the section that follows. _7_._4_._2_._1_._1 _A_d_d_i_n_g _/_d_e_v _E_n_t_r_i_e_s _f_o_r _t_h_e _P_o_r_t_s " Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. TToo aadddd aa /dev entry for a port: 1. Become root with the su command. Enter the root password when prompted. 2. Change to the /dev directory: FreeBSD Handbook 128 cd /dev 3. Type ./MAKEDEV _p_o_r_t where _p_o_r_t is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. 4. Type ls -l _p_o_r_t to make sure the device entry got created. _7_._4_._2_._1_._2 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n _M_o_d_e _f_o_r _t_h_e _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _P_o_r_t " When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The _i_n_t_e_r_r_u_p_t_-_d_r_i_v_e_n method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The _p_o_l_l_e_d method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the lptcontrol program. TToo sseett tthhee ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss mmooddee bbyy ccoonnffiigguurriinngg tthhee kkeerrnneell:: 1. Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq _N vector lptintr FreeBSD Handbook 129 where _N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr 2. Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) for more details. TToo sseett tthhee ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss mmooddee wwiitthh lptcontrol: Type lptcontrol -i -u _N to set interrupt-driven mode for lpt_N. Type lptcontrol -p -u _N to set polled-mode for lpt_N. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See lptcontrol(8) for more information. _7_._4_._2_._1_._3 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot eas ier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can imme diately print characters sent to them, the program lptest is perfect: it gener ates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophis ticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage _N_o_t_e_: When this document refers to a printer language, I am assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great func tionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. FreeBSD Handbook 130 _7_._4_._2_._1_._3_._1 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _a _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _P_r_i_n_t_e_r This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. TToo tteesstt aa pprriinntteerr oonn aa ppaarraalllleell ppoorrtt:: 1. Become root with su. 2. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest. Type: lptest > /dev/lpt_N where _N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type cat > /dev/lpt_N Then, line by line, type the program _c_a_r_e_f_u_l_l_y as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type cat _f_i_l_e > /dev/lpt_N where _f_i_l_e is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. _7_._4_._2_._1_._3_._2 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _a _S_e_r_i_a_l _P_r_i_n_t_e_r This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. TToo tteesstt aa pprriinntteerr oonn aa sseerriiaall ppoorrtt:: 1. Become root with su. 2. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/_p_o_r_t:br#_b_p_s_-_r_a_t_e:pa=_p_a_r_i_t_y where _p_o_r_t is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), _b_p_s_-_r_a_t_e is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and _p_a_r_i_t_y is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, FreeBSD Handbook 131 or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none 3. Connect to the printer with tip. Type: tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaa_N instead of /dev/ttyd_N. 4. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, _v_e_r_y _c_a_r_e_f_u_l_l_y as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end- of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole pro gram. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type ~>_f_i_l_e where _f_i_l_e is the name of the file containing the program. After tip sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. _7_._4_._2_._2 _E_n_a_b_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_e_r_: _T_h_e _/_e_t_c_/_p_r_i_n_t_c_a_p _F_i_l_e " At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. FreeBSD Handbook 132 The format of the printcap file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the cgetent(3). The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: 1. Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see _N_a_m_i_n_g _t_h_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.1, page 132). 2. Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capa bility; see _S_u_p_p_r_e_s_s_i_n_g _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.4.2.2.2, page 133). 3. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capabil ity; see _M_a_k_i_n_g _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_i_n_g _D_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y (section 7.4.2.2.3, page 134). 4. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see _I_d_e_n_t_i_f_y_i_n_g _t_h_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _D_e_v_i_c_e (section 7.4.2.2.4, page 135). Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; see _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _S_p_o_o_l_e_r _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s _P_a_r_a_m_e_t_e_r_s (section 7.4.2.2.5, page 135). 5. Install a plain text input filter; see _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.6, page 136) 6. Test the setup by printing something with the lpr command; see _T_r_y_i_n_g _I_t _O_u_t (section 7.4.2.2.7, page 137) and _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g (section 7.4.2.2.8, page 138). _N_o_t_e_: Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the follow ing sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language _a_n_d print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup out lined above: install an automatic plain-text--to--PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. Section _A_c_c_o_m_m_o_d_a_t_i_n_g _P_l_a_i_n _T_e_x_t _J_o_b_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.2, page 153) tells how to do this. _7_._4_._2_._2_._1 _N_a_m_i_n_g _t_h_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer. It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also pro vide a number aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of FreeBSD Handbook 133 the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost col umn. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. _7_._4_._2_._2_._2 _S_u_p_p_r_e_s_s_i_n_g _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s The LPD spooling system will by default print a _h_e_a_d_e_r _p_a_g_e for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is the example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost col umn, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. FreeBSD Handbook 134 _7_._4_._2_._2_._3 _M_a_k_i_n_g _t_h_e _S_p_o_o_l_i_n_g _D_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a _s_p_o_o_l_i_n_g _d_i_r_e_c_t_o_r_y, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running mkdir. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: mkdir /var/spool/_p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: mkdir /var/spool/lpd mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo _N_o_t_e_: If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capabil ity: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. FreeBSD Handbook 135 If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. _7_._4_._2_._2_._4 _I_d_e_n_t_i_f_y_i_n_g _t_h_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _D_e_v_i_c_e In section _A_d_d_i_n_g _/_d_e_v _E_n_t_r_i_e_s _f_o_r _t_h_e _P_o_r_t_s (section 7.4.2.1.1, page 127), we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.6, page 136). Oth erwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. _7_._4_._2_._2_._5 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _S_p_o_o_l_e_r _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n Parameters" For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parame ters of the device listed in the lp capability: FreeBSD Handbook 136 br#_b_p_s_-_r_a_t_e Sets the communications speed of the device to _b_p_s_-_r_a_t_e, where _b_p_s_- _r_a_t_e can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#_c_l_e_a_r_-_b_i_t_s Clears the flag bits _c_l_e_a_r_-_b_i_t_s in the sgttyb structure after open ing the device. fs#_s_e_t_-_b_i_t_s Sets the flag bits _s_e_t_-_b_i_t_s in the sgttyb structure. xc#_c_l_e_a_r_-_b_i_t_s Clears local mode bits _c_l_e_a_r_-_b_i_t_s after opening the device. xs#_s_e_t_-_b_i_t_s Sets local mode bits _s_e_t_-_b_i_t_s. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: _7_._4_._2_._2_._6 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A _t_e_x_t _f_i_l_t_e_r, also known as an _i_n_p_u_t _f_i_l_t_e_r, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard out put to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see section _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.1, page 151). For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section _l_p_f_: _a _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.6.1.6, page 162). FreeBSD Handbook 137 First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text edi tor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the exam ple /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: _7_._4_._2_._2_._7 _T_r_y_i_n_g _I_t _O_u_t You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratula tions are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command lpr, which submits a job for printing. You can combine lpr with the lptest program, introduced in section _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s (section 7.4.2.1.3, page 129) to generate some test text. TToo tteesstt tthhee ssiimmppllee LLPPDD sseettuupp:: Type: lptest 20 5 | lpr -P_p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e FreeBSD Handbook 138 where _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type lpr without any -P argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using lptest. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr _f_i_l_e. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using lptest, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language- based printers) or running lptest with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the next section, _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g (section 7.4.2.2.8, page 138). _7_._4_._2_._2_._8 _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g After performing the simple test with lptest, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did noth ing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usu ally sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: FreeBSD Handbook 139 #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the ``staircase effect.'' You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 You have become another victim of the _s_t_a_i_r_c_a_s_e _e_f_f_e_c_t, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new-line. UNIX-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 _a_n_d ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for repre senting new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next char acter to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. _N_o_t_e_: If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to _r_e_c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_e the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports FreeBSD Handbook 140 _o_n_l_y. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capa bility in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an _e_s_c_a_p_e _c_o_d_e to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's man ual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Writes a form feed character # after printing job. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the ``opposite'' of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer received CR Printer prints CR FreeBSD Handbook 141 Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, los ing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line. (This problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports.) There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDM BUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parame ters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For exam ple, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. FreeBSD Handbook 142 _7_._5 _U_s_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: lpr Print jobs lpq Check printer queues lprm Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, lpc, described in the section _A_d_m_i_n_i_s_ _t_r_a_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _L_P_D _S_p_o_o_l_e_r (section 7.5.5, page 148), used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands lpr, lprm, and lpq accept an option ``-P _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_- _n_a_m_e'' to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the -P option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology _d_e_f_a_u_l_t _p_r_i_n_t_e_r means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. _7_._5_._1 _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g _J_o_b_s To print files, type lpr _f_i_l_e_n_a_m_e_._._. This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, lpr reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type lpr -P _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e _f_i_l_e_n_a_m_e_._._. This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: ls -l | lpr -P rattan FreeBSD Handbook 143 Because no files were listed for the lpr command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The lpr command can also accept a wide variety of options to control format ting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g _O_p_t_i_o_n_s (section 7.5.4, page 145). _7_._5_._2 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _J_o_b_s When you print with lpr, the data you wish to print is put together in a pack age called a _p_r_i_n_t _j_o_b, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first- come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type lpq. For a specific printer, use the -P option. For example, the command lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned _j_o_b _n_u_m_b_e_r 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section _R_e_m_o_v_i_n_g _J_o_b_s (section 7.5.3, page 144) for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the lpr command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the ``Rank'' column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the lpr command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long to fit, so the lpq com mand just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from lpq is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The lpq command also support a -l option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: FreeBSD Handbook 144 waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes _7_._5_._3 _R_e_m_o_v_i_n_g _J_o_b_s If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the lprm command. Often, you can even use lprm to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use lpq to find the job number. Then type lprm _j_o_b_-_n_u_m_b_e_r To remove the job from a specific printer, add the -P option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: lprm -P bamboo 10 The lprm command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm _u_s_e_r Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to _u_s_e_r. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or ``-'' appearing on the command line, lprm removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the -P option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: lprm -P rattan - _N_o_t_e_: If you are working in a networked environment, lprm will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were FreeBSD Handbook 145 submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The follow ing command sequence demonstrates this: rose% lpr -P rattan myfile rose% rlogin orchid orchid% lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes orchid% lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied orchid% logout rose% lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued rose% _7_._5_._4 _B_e_y_o_n_d _P_l_a_i_n _T_e_x_t_: _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g _O_p_t_i_o_n_s The lpr command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. _7_._5_._4_._1 _F_o_r_m_a_t_t_i_n_g _a_n_d _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _O_p_t_i_o_n_s The following lpr options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the pr utility. For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. _N_o_t_e_: All of these options except -p and -T require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the -d option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.4, page 155) gives details. -c Print cifplot files. -d Print DVI files. -f Print FORTRAN text files. FreeBSD Handbook 146 -g Print plot data. -i _n_u_m_b_e_r Indent the output by _n_u_m_b_e_r columns; if you omit _n_u_m_b_e_r, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. _N_o_t_e_: Do not put any space between the -i and the number. -l Print literal text data, including control characters. -n Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with pr before printing. See pr(1) for more information. -T _t_i_t_l_e Use _t_i_t_l_e on the pr header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the -p option. -t Print troff data. -v Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the ls manual page on the default printer: zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The zcat command uncompresses the source of the ls manual page and passes it to the troff command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to lpr, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the -t option to lpr, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. _7_._5_._4_._2 _J_o_b _H_a_n_d_l_i_n_g _O_p_t_i_o_n_s The following options to lpr tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# _c_o_p_i_e_s Produce a number of _c_o_p_i_e_s of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _M_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _C_o_p_i_e_s (section 7.6.4.1, page 173). FreeBSD Handbook 147 This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling direc tory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. _N_o_t_e_: If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the -s option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the -s option. Be careful with this option! _7_._5_._4_._3 _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e _O_p_t_i_o_n_s These options to lpr adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2, page 163) for information about setting up header pages. -C _t_e_x_t Replace the hostname on the header page with _t_e_x_t. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J _t_e_x_t Replace the job name on the header page with _t_e_x_t. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or ``stdin'' if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. _N_o_t_e_: At some sites, this option may FreeBSD Handbook 148 have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2, page 163) for details. _7_._5_._5 _A_d_m_i_n_i_s_t_r_a_t_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the lpc command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With lpc, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is _s_t_o_p_p_e_d, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is _s_t_a_r_t_e_d or the queue is cleared. If a queue is _d_i_s_a_b_l_e_d, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An _e_n_a_b_l_e_d queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be _s_t_a_r_t_e_d for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the lpc command. Ordinary users can use the lpc command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the lpc commands. Most of the commands takes a _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_- _n_a_m_e argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still sub mit jobs if the queue's enabled. clean _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasion ally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or fil ter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your FreeBSD Handbook 149 testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e _m_e_s_s_a_g_e_._._. Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The _m_e_s_s_a_g_e appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with lpq or status with lpc status. enable _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_-_n_a_m_e Print help on the command _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_-_n_a_m_e. With no _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_-_n_a_m_e, print a summary of the commands available. restart _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e _j_o_b_-_o_r_-_u_s_e_r_n_a_m_e_._._. Rearrange the queue for _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e by placing the jobs with the listed _j_o_b numbers or the jobs belonging to _u_s_e_r_n_a_m_e at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_- _n_a_m_e. up _p_r_i_n_t_e_r_-_n_a_m_e Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. lpc accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, lpc enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. _7_._6 _A_d_v_a_n_c_e_d _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. _7_._6_._1 _F_i_l_t_e_r_s Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the _r_e_a_l work happens in the _f_i_l_t_e_r_s. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies FreeBSD Handbook 150 and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter---an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (sec tion _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.6, page 136)). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time _y_o_u have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many print ers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD ports collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section _H_o_w _F_i_l_t_e_r_s _W_o_r_k (section 7.6.1.1, page 151), tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening ``under the hood'' when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section _A_c_c_o_m_m_o_d_a_t_i_n_g _P_l_a_i_n _T_e_x_t _J_o_b_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.2, page 153) tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. I recommend reading this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section _S_i_m_u_l_a_t_i_n_g _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _o_n _N_o_n_-_P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.3, page 154) tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a _n_o_n_-_P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t printer. I recommend reading this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.4, page 155) tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section _O_u_t_p_u_t _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.5, page 161) tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2, page 163)), you can probably skip that section altogether. FreeBSD Handbook 151 Section _l_p_f_: _a _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.6.1.6, page 162) describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser print ers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. _7_._6_._1_._1 _H_o_w _F_i_l_t_e_r_s _W_o_r_k As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to han dle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the lpr command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see _O_u_t_p_u_t _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.5, page 161) for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The _t_e_x_t _f_i_l_t_e_r, confusingly called the _i_n_p_u_t _f_i_l_t_e_r in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: [-c] -w_w_i_d_t_h -l_l_e_n_g_t_h -i_i_n_d_e_n_t -n _l_o_g_i_n -h _h_o_s_t _a_c_c_t_-_f_i_l_e where -c appears if the job's submitted with lpr -l _w_i_d_t_h is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 _l_e_n_g_t_h is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 FreeBSD Handbook 152 _i_n_d_e_n_t is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 _l_o_g_i_n is the account name of the user printing the file _h_o_s_t is the host name from which the job was submitted _a_c_c_t_-_f_i_l_e is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. A _c_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _f_i_l_t_e_r converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.4, page 155) tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: -x_p_i_x_e_l_-_w_i_d_t_h -y_p_i_x_e_l_-_h_e_i_g_h_t -n _l_o_g_i_n -h _h_o_s_t _a_c_c_t_-_f_i_l_e where _p_i_x_e_l_-_w_i_d_t_h is the value from the px capability (default 0) and _p_i_x_e_l_-_h_e_i_g_h_t is the value from the py capability (default 0). The _o_u_t_p_u_t _f_i_l_t_e_r is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section _O_u_t_p_u_t _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.5, page 161) describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: -w_w_i_d_t_h -l_l_e_n_g_t_h which are identical to the text filters -w and -l arguments. Filters should also _e_x_i_t with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, FreeBSD Handbook 153 takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. _7_._6_._1_._2 _A_c_c_o_m_m_o_d_a_t_i_n_g _P_l_a_i_n _T_e_x_t _J_o_b_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s " If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language- based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as ``toner low'' or ``paper jam''). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD ports collection (see _T_h_e _P_o_r_t_s _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (sec tion 4., page 25)). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the fol lowing in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: FreeBSD Handbook 154 #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports collection (see _T_h_e _P_o_r_t_s _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (section 4., page 25)) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. _7_._6_._1_._3 _S_i_m_u_l_a_t_i_n_g _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _o_n _N_o_n_-_P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s " PostScript is the _d_e _f_a_c_t_o standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an _e_x_p_e_n_s_i_v_e standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called _G_h_o_s_t_s_c_r_i_p_t that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript should be in the FreeBSD ports collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily your self, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the -sDEVICE argument to FreeBSD Handbook 155 the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the last page. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. _7_._6_._1_._4 _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s After completing the simple setup described in _S_i_m_p_l_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4, page 124), the first thing you will probably want to do is install conver sion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). FreeBSD Handbook 156 _7_._6_._1_._4_._1 _W_h_y _I_n_s_t_a_l_l _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s_? Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conver sion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the -d option. Section _F_o_r_m_a_t_t_i_n_g _a_n_d _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _O_p_t_i_o_n_s (section 7.5.4.1, page 145) lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a _c_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _f_i_l_t_e_r and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion fil ter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.6, page 136)) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. _7_._6_._1_._4_._2 _W_h_i_c_h _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n_s _F_i_l_t_e_r_s _S_h_o_u_l_d _I _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_? " You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capabil ity entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: /etc/printcap File type Capability lpr option ------------ ------------- ---------- cifplot cf -c DVI df -d plot gf -g ditroff nf -n FORTRAN text rf -f troff tf -t raster vf -v plain text if none, -p, or -l FreeBSD Handbook 157 In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are prob ably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desk top publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean ``print Printerleaf files.'' _7_._6_._1_._4_._3 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capa bility for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the -f argument) on standard input, FreeBSD Handbook 158 which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section _A_c_c_o_m_m_o_d_a_t_i_n_g _P_l_a_i_n _T_e_x_t _J_o_b_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (sec tion 7.6.1.2, page 153)) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. _7_._6_._1_._4_._4 _M_o_r_e _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r _E_x_a_m_p_l_e_s Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own fil ters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above fil ter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff type setting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script FreeBSD Handbook 159 instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FOR TRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-Laser Jet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD ports collection (see _T_h_e _P_o_r_t_s _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (section 4., page 25)) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the FreeBSD Handbook 160 temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The fil ter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working direc tory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, espe cially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling direc tory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # FreeBSD Handbook 161 ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 _7_._6_._1_._4_._5 _A_u_t_o_m_a_t_e_d _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n_: _A_n _A_l_t_e_r_n_a_t_i_v_e _T_o _C_o_n_v_e_r_s_i_o_n _F_i_l_t_e_r_s " All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the lpr command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to spec ify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to deter mine the differences between _s_o_m_e file types---and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that performs automatic conver sion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. _7_._6_._1_._5 _O_u_t_p_u_t _F_i_l_t_e_r_s The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. FreeBSD Handbook 162 LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: -w_w_i_d_t_h -l_l_e_n_g_t_h where _w_i_d_t_h is from the pw capability and _l_e_n_g_t_h is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter _w_i_l_l _n_o_t _w_o_r_k. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.4.2.2.6, page 136). Furthermore, an output filter is actu ally _m_o_r_e _c_o_m_p_l_e_x in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is _n_e_c_e_s_s_a_r_y if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also _f_u_t_i_l_e if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other fil ters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2, page 163)) only. LPD then expects the output filter to _s_t_o_p _i_t_s_e_l_f by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but _n_o text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the out put filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably _n_o_t what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. _7_._6_._1_._6 _l_p_f_: _a _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capa bility to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. FreeBSD Handbook 163 In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see _A_c_c_o_u_n_t_ _i_n_g _f_o_r _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _U_s_a_g_e (section 7.6.5, page 178). _7_._6_._2 _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s If you have _l_o_t_s of users, all of them using various printers, then you proba bly want to consider _h_e_a_d_e_r _p_a_g_e_s as a necessary evil. Header pages, also known as _b_a_n_n_e_r or _b_u_r_s_t _p_a_g_e_s identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, per haps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recy cling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts _i_f your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.2.4, page 167). _7_._6_._2_._1 _E_n_a_b_l_i_n_g _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s In the _S_i_m_p_l_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4, page 124), we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning ``suppress header'') in the /etc/print cap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You _m_i_g_h_t have to provide an output filter to send initializa tion strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See _O_u_t_p_u_t _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.5, page 161) for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: FreeBSD Handbook 164 # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e _O_p_t_i_o_n_s (sec tion 7.5.4.3, page 147) for more lpr options. Note: LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. _7_._6_._2_._2 _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_i_n_g _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a _l_o_n_g _h_e_a_d_e_r, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): FreeBSD Handbook 165 k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a _s_h_o_r_t _h_e_a_d_e_r; specify sb (short banner) in the FreeBSD Handbook 166 /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. _7_._6_._2_._3 _A_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g _f_o_r _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be _f_r_e_e _o_f _c_h_a_r_g_e. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not pro vided with any _u_s_e_r _o_r _h_o_s_t information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just ``add one page'' to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is _s_t_i_l_l _n_o_t _e_n_o_u_g_h to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the -h option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPDng or PLP. Section _A_l_t_e_r_n_a_t_i_v_e_s _t_o _t_h_e _S_t_a_n_d_a_r_d _S_p_o_o_l_e_r (section 7.7, page 181) tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a _s_m_a_r_t output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. FreeBSD Handbook 167 To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. _7_._6_._2_._4 _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s _o_n _P_o_s_t_S_c_r_i_p_t _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless---or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` " 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. FreeBSD Handbook 168 # exec cat <&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see sec tion _H_o_w _F_i_l_t_e_r_s _W_o_r_k (section 7.6.1.1, page 151)). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the ``suppress header page'' option (the -h option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section _A_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g _f_o_r _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2.3, page 166): write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output fil ter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof FreeBSD Handbook 170 does not charge for header pages. _7_._6_._3 _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_e_d _P_r_i_n_t_i_n_g FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Net worked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the net work. Section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170) tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170) to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you ``attach'' the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Sec tion _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _w_i_t_h _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_e_d _D_a_t_a _S_t_r_e_a_m _I_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e_s (section 7.6.3.2, page 172) gives some suggestions on installing such print ers. _7_._6_._3_._1 _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD proto col. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r _h_o_s_t, using the simple printer setup described in _S_i_m_p_l_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.4, page 124). Do any advanced setup in _A_d_v_a_n_c_e_d _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p (section 7.6, page 149) that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the _l_o_c_a_l _h_o_s_t has authorization to use the LPD service in the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r _h_o_s_t (see _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _J_o_b_s _f_r_o_m _R_e_m_o_t_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.4.4, page 176)). If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r _h_o_s_t in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r _n_a_m_e is the name you configured for the printer. See the documen tation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: FreeBSD Handbook 171 1. Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. 2. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). 3. Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. 4. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. 5. Place the printer name on the _p_r_i_n_t_e_r _h_o_s_t in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section _E_n_a_b_l_i_n_g _H_e_a_d_e_r _P_a_g_e_s (section 7.6.2.1, page 163)). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user FreeBSD Handbook 172 on orchid typed lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. _7_._6_._3_._2 _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _w_i_t_h _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_e_d _D_a_t_a _S_t_r_e_a_m _I_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e_s Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170). The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications pro gram that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to net print. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). FreeBSD Handbook 173 #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 "; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while () { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 _7_._6_._4 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _U_s_a_g_e This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. _7_._6_._4_._1 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _M_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _C_o_p_i_e_s The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the -# option to lpr by adding the sc capability to the FreeBSD Handbook 174 /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the -# option, they will see lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170)), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo's a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running lpr multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign FreeBSD Handbook 175 There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. _7_._6_._4_._2 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _A_c_c_e_s_s _T_o _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s You can control who can print to what printers by using the UNIX group mecha nism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appro priate (see section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170)). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. _N_o_t_e_: there can be only one restricted group per printer. _7_._6_._4_._3 _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_i_n_g _S_i_z_e_s _o_f _J_o_b_s _S_u_b_m_i_t_t_e_d If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other FreeBSD Handbook 176 users. LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size. Note that the limit applies to _f_i_l_e_s in a job, and _n_o_t the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_e_d _o_n _R_e_m_o_t_e _H_o_s_t_s (section 7.6.3.1, page 170) for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _J_o_b_s _f_r_o_m _R_e_m_o_t_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.4.4, page 176). _7_._6_._4_._4 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _J_o_b_s _f_r_o_m _R_e_m_o_t_e _P_r_i_n_t_e_r_s The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts FreeBSD Handbook 177 requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the ruserok(3) pro tocol, and affects programs like rsh and rcp, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, LPD will refuse them. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesys tem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is the given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts _i_f the user submitting the job also has an account of FreeBSD Handbook 178 the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use _o_n_l_y your printers and not your compute resources, you can give them ``token'' accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. _7_._6_._5 _A_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g _f_o_r _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _U_s_a_g_e So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs---printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and _y_o_u_r requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file for mats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section _F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1, page 149). Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: _P_e_r_i_o_d_i_c _a_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. _T_i_m_e_l_y _a_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their ``print quotas.'' But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this FreeBSD Handbook 179 information. _7_._6_._5_._1 _Q_u_i_c_k _a_n_d _D_i_r_t_y _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _A_c_c_o_u_n_t_i_n_g FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section _l_p_f_: _a _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.6.1.6, page 162), and pac, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (_F_i_l_t_e_r_s (section 7.6.1.1, page 151)), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capa bilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the pac program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the fol lowing: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 FreeBSD Handbook 180 These are the arguments pac expects: -P_p_r_i_n_t_e_r Which _p_r_i_n_t_e_r to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. -c Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. -m Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. -p_p_r_i_c_e Compute charges with _p_r_i_c_e dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify _p_r_i_c_e as a floating point number. -r Reverse the sort order. -s Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. _n_a_m_e_s_._._. Print accounting information for the given user _n_a_m_e_s only. In the default summary that pac produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, pac uses the pc capability in the /etc/print cap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run pac with the -p option. The units for the -p option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. FreeBSD Handbook 181 Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary account ing file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run pac again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. _7_._6_._5_._2 _H_o_w _C_a_n _Y_o_u _C_o_u_n_t _P_a_g_e_s _P_r_i_n_t_e_d_? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem's not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer sup ports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which over print lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physi cal lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in _l_p_f_: _a _T_e_x_t _F_i_l_t_e_r (section 7.6.1.6, page 162)) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode---and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one _s_u_r_e way to do _a_c_c_u_r_a_t_e accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value _o_n_l_y. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. _7_._7 _A_l_t_e_r_n_a_t_i_v_e_s _t_o _t_h_e _S_t_a_n_d_a_r_d _S_p_o_o_l_e_r If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which nat urally leads to the question: ``What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)?'' FreeBSD Handbook 182 Unfortunately, I have located only _t_w_o alternatives---and they are almost iden tical to each other! They are: PLP, the Portable Line Printer Spooler System PLP was based on software developed by Patrick Powell and then maintained by an Internet-wide group of developers. The main site for the software is at ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp. There is also a web page. It is quite similar to the BSD LPD spooler, but boasts a host of features, including: Better network support, including built-in support for net worked printers, NIS-maintained printcaps, and NFS-mounted spooling directories Sophisticated queue management, allowing multiple printers on a queue, transfer of jobs between queues, and queue redirec tion Remote printer control functions Prioritization of jobs Expansive security and access options LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means ``LPR: the Next Generation'' is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng. _7_._8 _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s I would like to thank the following people who have assisted in the develop ment of this document: Daniel Eischen For providing a plethora of HP filter programs for perusal. Jake Hamby " For the Ghostscript-to-HP filter. My wife, Mary Kelly For allowing me to spend more time with FreeBSD than with her. _8_. _D_i_s_k_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _D_a_v_i_d _O_'_B_r_i_e_n 26 April 1998 Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a FreeBSD Handbook 183 single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the com puter following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manu facturer. Due the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user _r_o_o_t. After you've installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be sd1 and we want to mount it on /1. (if you are adding an IDE drive substitute wd for sd) Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD parti tions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the _d_e_d_i_c_a_t_e_d mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions, _s_l_i_c_e_s so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/sd1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/sd1e. _8_._1 _U_s_i_n_g _s_y_s_i_n_s_t_a_l_l You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user _r_o_o_t or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_e menu. With in the FreeBSD Configura tion Menu, scroll down and select the _P_a_r_t_i_t_i_o_n item. Next you should be pre sented with a list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see sd1 listed, you need to recheck your physical installation and dmesg output in the file /var/run/dmesg.boot. Select sd1 to enter the FDISK Partition Editor. Choose A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to ``remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems'', answer _Y_E_S. Write the changes to the disk using _W. Now exit the FDISK editor using _q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose _N_o_n_e. Next enter the _D_i_s_k _L_a_b_e_l _E_d_i_t_o_r. This is where you will create the tradi tional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The _a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an _a partition. The _b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The _c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. Sysinstall's Label editor favors the _e partition for non-root, non-swap parti tions. With in the Label editor, create a single file system using _C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose ``FS'' and give a FreeBSD Handbook 184 mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify isn't important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by hitting _W. Ignore any errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely. The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. _8_._2 _U_s_i_n_g _c_o_m_m_a_n_d _l_i_n_e _u_t_i_l_i_t_i_e_s _8_._2_._1 _* _U_s_i_n_g _S_l_i_c_e_s _8_._2_._2 _D_e_d_i_c_a_t_e_d If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the _d_e_d_i_c_a_t_e_d mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will "appropriate" any partition it finds which it doesn't understand. dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rsd1 bs=1k count=1 disklabel -Brw sd1 auto disklabel -e sd1 # create the `e' partition newfs -d0 /dev/rsd1e mkdir -p /1 vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/sd1e mount /1 An alternate method is: dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rsd1 count=2 disklabel /dev/rsd1 | disklabel -BrR sd1 /dev/stdin newfs /dev/rsd1e mkdir -p /1 vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/sd1e mount /1 _8_._3 _* _N_o_n_-_t_r_a_d_i_t_i_o_n_a_l _D_r_i_v_e_s _8_._3_._1 _* _Z_i_p _D_r_i_v_e_s _8_._3_._2 _* _J_a_z_z _D_r_i_v_e_s _8_._3_._3 _* _S_e_q_u_e_s_t _D_r_i_v_e_s _9_. _B_a_c_k_u_p_s Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on inexpensive commodity PC hardware FreeBSD Handbook 185 is also its liability when it comes to support for the amazing variety of com ponents on the market. While it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers sup ports. Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are included. You may also want to refer to _t_h_e _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _f_i_l_e (section 5.3, page 82) section in this handbook for a list of supported devices. As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending e-mail to the FreeBSD documentation pro ject mailing list . Questions about supported hard ware should be directed to the FreeBSD general questions mailing list (see _M_a_i_l_i_n_g _L_i_s_t_s (section 27.1, page 498) for more information). When submitting information or asking a question, please remem ber to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are using and include as many details of your hardware as possible. _9_._1 _* _W_h_a_t _a_b_o_u_t _b_a_c_k_u_p_s _t_o _f_l_o_p_p_i_e_s_? _9_._2 _T_a_p_e _M_e_d_i_a The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. _9_._2_._1 _4_m_m _(_D_D_S_: _D_i_g_i_t_a_l _D_a_t_a _S_t_o_r_a_g_e_) " 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data thruput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s. Data capac ity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape chang ing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. _9_._2_._2 _8_m_m _(_E_x_a_b_y_t_e_) " 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm FreeBSD Handbook 186 drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data thruput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. _9_._2_._3 _Q_I_C QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive "serious" backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the _m_o_s_t common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). _M_i_n_i_-_c_a_r_t_r_i_d_g_e_s (section 9.2.4, page 186), which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data thruput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and there fore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. _9_._2_._4 _* _M_i_n_i_-_C_a_r_t_r_i_d_g_e _9_._2_._5 _D_L_T DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. FreeBSD Handbook 187 The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to "hook" the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape car tridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data thruput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the thruput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10GB to 20GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50GB to 9TB of storage. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head life times are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. _9_._2_._6 _U_s_i_n_g _a _n_e_w _t_a_p_e _f_o_r _t_h_e _f_i_r_s_t _t_i_m_e The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: st0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 st0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and dump(8) data to the tape. dump(8) will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARD WARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96 rewind the tape using: mt rewind Subsequent tape operations are successful. _9_._3 _B_a_c_k_u_p _P_r_o_g_r_a_m_s The three major programs are dump(8), tar(1), and cpio(1). _9_._3_._1 _D_u_m_p _a_n_d _R_e_s_t_o_r_e dump(8) and restore(8) are the traditional Unix backup programs. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the filesystems. dump(8) backs up devices, entire filesystems, not parts of a filesystem and not directory trees that span more than one filesystem, using either soft links ln(1) or mounting one filesystem onto another. dump(8) does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the data blocks that are the building blocks of files FreeBSD Handbook 188 and directories. dump(8) has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. rdump(8) and rrestore(8) backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer. Both programs rely upon rcmd(3) and ruserok(3) to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have rhosts access to the remote computer. The arguments to rdump(8) and rrestore(8) must suitable to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When rdump'ing from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrst8 /dev/rsd0a 2>&1) Beware: there are security implications to allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your situation carefully. _9_._3_._2 _T_a_r tar(1) also dates back to Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). tar(1) operates in cooperation with the filesystem; tar(1) writes files and directories to tape. tar(1) does not support the full range of options that are available from cpio(1), but tar(1) does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio(1) uses. Most versions of tar(1) do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar(1), which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar(1) to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrst8 . 2>&1. For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh(1) to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example command) _9_._3_._3 _C_p_i_o cpio(1) is the original Unix file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio(1) has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a num ber of different archives format, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio(1) and excellent choice for installation media. cpio(1) does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided thru STDIN. cpio(1) does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh(1) to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example com mand) _9_._3_._4 _P_a_x pax(1) is IEEE/POSIX's answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various ver sions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar. FreeBSD Handbook 189 _9_._3_._5 _A_m_a_n_d_a Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup sys tem, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and network commu nications with the Amanda server. A common problem at locations with a number of large disks is the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a "holding disk" to backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates "archive sets": a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's con figuration file. The "archive set" also contains nightly incremental (or dif ferential) backups of all the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. _9_._3_._6 _D_o _n_o_t_h_i_n_g "Do nothing" is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then "Do nothing" is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. "Do nothing" is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise these handbook pages-they have been generated from SGML input files. Creating backups of these HTML files is not necessary. The SGML source files are backed up regularly. _9_._3_._7 _W_h_i_c_h _B_a_c_k_u_p _P_r_o_g_r_a_m _i_s _B_e_s_t_? dump(8) _P_e_r_i_o_d_. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs dis cussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the pecu liarities of Unix filesystems is dump(8). Elizabeth created filesystems con taining a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by do a backup and restore of that filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are cre ated/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. _9_._3_._8 _E_m_e_r_g_e_n_c_y _R_e_s_t_o_r_e _P_r_o_c_e_d_u_r_e FreeBSD Handbook 190 _9_._3_._8_._1 _B_e_f_o_r_e _t_h_e _D_i_s_a_s_t_e_r There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any dis aster that may occur. First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel sd0 | lpr), your filesystem table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. Second, determine that the boot and fixit floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which has a kernel that can mount your all of your disks and access your tape drive. These flop pies must contain: fdisk(8), disklabel(8), newfs(8), mount(8), and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump(8), the floppy must contain restore(8). Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may pre vent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rst0, you might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rst0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physi cally separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. An example script for creating a bootable floppy: FreeBSD Handbook 191 #!/bin/sh # # create a restore floppy # # format the floppy # PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin fdformat -q fd0 if [ $? -ne 0 ] then echo "Bad floppy, please use a new one" exit 1 fi # place boot blocks on the floppy # disklabel -w -B -b /usr/mdec/fdboot -s /usr/mdec/bootfd /dev/rfd0c fd1440 # # newfs the one and only partition # newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -c 40 -i 5120 -m 5 -o space /dev/rfd0a # # mount the new floppy # mount /dev/fd0a /mnt # # create required directories # mkdir /mnt/dev mkdir /mnt/bin mkdir /mnt/sbin mkdir /mnt/etc mkdir /mnt/root mkdir /mnt/mnt # for the root partition mkdir /mnt/tmp mkdir /mnt/var # # populate the directories # if [ ! -x /sys/compile/MINI/kernel ] then cat << EOM The MINI kernel does not exist, please create one. Here is an example config file: # # MINI -- A kernel to get FreeBSD on onto a disk. # machine "i386" cpu "I486_CPU" FreeBSD Handbook 192 ident MINI maxusers 5 options INET # needed for _tcp _icmpstat _ipstat # _udpstat _tcpstat _udb options FFS #Berkeley Fast File System options FAT_CURSOR #block cursor in syscons or pccons options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device options NCONS=2 #1 virtual consoles options USERCONFIG #Allow user configuration with -c XXX config kernel root on sd0 swap on sd0 and sd1 dumps on sd0 controller isa0 controller pci0 controller fdc0 at isa? port "IO_FD1" bio irq 6 drq 2 vector fdintr disk fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 controller ncr0 controller scbus0 device sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector scintr device npx0 at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13 vector npxintr device sd0 device sd1 device sd2 device st0 pseudo-device loop # required by INET pseudo-device gzip # Exec gzipped a.out's EOM exit 1 fi cp -f /sys/compile/MINI/kernel /mnt gzip -c -best /sbin/init > /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV FreeBSD Handbook 193 chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV sd0 ./MAKEDEV sd1 ./MAKEDEV sd2 ./MAKEDEV st0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd <. 26 February 1996 Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from con suming all of the available disk space. _1_0_._1 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _Y_o_u_r _S_y_s_t_e_m _t_o _E_n_a_b_l_e _D_i_s_k _Q_u_o_t_a_s Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quo tas. Please refer to the _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _K_e_r_n_e_l (section 5., page 80) section for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/sysconfig. This is done by changing the line: FreeBSD Handbook 195 quotas=NO to: quotas=YES If you are running FreeBSD 2.2.2 or later, the configuration file will be /etc/rc.conf instead and the variable name changed to check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/sd1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of the userquota keyword. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/sd1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respec tively. See man fstab for more information. Even though that man page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended since all of the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manu ally create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quo tacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their operation. _1_0_._2 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _Q_u_o_t_a _L_i_m_i_t_s Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run quota -v. You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a FreeBSD Handbook 196 user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quo tas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits. A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For exam ple, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is cur rently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run then edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. # edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the -p option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: edquota -p test 10000-19999 FreeBSD Handbook 197 The ability to specify uid ranges was added to the system after 2.1 was released. If you need this feature on a 2.1 system, you will need to obtain a newer copy of edquota. See man edquota for more detailed information. _1_0_._3 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _Q_u_o_t_a _L_i_m_i_t_s _a_n_d _D_i_s_k _U_s_a_g_e You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 On the /usr file system in the above example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the asterisk (*) which indicates that the user is currently over their quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if they have a quota limit assigned for that file system. The -v option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. _1_0_._4 _* _Q_u_o_t_a_s _o_v_e_r _N_F_S This section is still under development. _1_1_. _T_h_e _X _W_i_n_d_o_w _S_y_s_t_e_m Pending the completion of this section, please refer to documentation supplied by the The XFree86 Project, Inc11 . _1_2_. _P_C _H_a_r_d_w_a_r_e _c_o_m_p_a_t_i_b_i_l_i_t_y Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on inexpensive commodity PC hardware is also its liability when it comes to support for the amazing variety of ____________________ 11. FreeBSD Handbook 198 components on the market. While it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers sup ports. Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are included. You may also want to refer to _t_h_e _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _f_i_l_e (section 5.3, page 82) section in this handbook for a list of supported devices. As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending e-mail to the FreeBSD documentation pro ject mailing list . Questions about supported hard ware should be directed to the FreeBSD general questions mailing list (see _M_a_i_l_i_n_g _L_i_s_t_s (section 27.1, page 498) for more information). When submitting information or asking a question, please remem ber to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are using and include as many details of your hardware as possible. _1_2_._1 _R_e_s_o_u_r_c_e_s _o_n _t_h_e _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t The following links have proven useful in selecting hardware. Though some of what you see won't necessarily be specific (or even applicable) to FreeBSD, most of the hardware information out there is OS independent. Please check with the FreeBSD hardware guide to make sure that your chosen configuration is supported before making any purchases. The Pentium Systems Hardware Performance Guide _1_2_._2 _S_a_m_p_l_e _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n_s The following list of sample hardware configurations by no means constitutes an endorsement of a given hardware vendor or product by _T_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _P_r_o_j_e_c_t. This information is provided only as a public service and merely catalogs some of the experiences that various individuals have had with different hardware com binations. Your mileage may vary. Slippery when wet. Beware of dog. _1_2_._2_._1 _J_o_r_d_a_n_'_s _P_i_c_k_s I have had fairly good luck building workstation and server configurations with the following components. I can't guarantee that you will too, nor that any of the companies here will remain "best buys" forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this list up-to-date but cannot obviously guarantee that it will be at any given time. _1_2_._2_._1_._1 _M_o_t_h_e_r_b_o_a_r_d_s For Pentium Pro (P6) systems, I'm quite fond of the Tyan S1668 dual-processor motherboard as well as the Intel PR440FX motherboard with on-board SCSI WIDE and 100/10MB Intel Etherexpress NIC. You can build a dandy little single or dual processor system (which is supported in FreeBSD 3.0) for very little cost now that the Pentium Pro 180/256K chips have fallen so greatly in price, but no telling how much longer this will last. For the Pentium II, I'm rather partial to the ASUS P2l97-S motherboard with the FreeBSD Handbook 199 on-board Adaptec SCSI WIDE controller. For Pentium machines, the ASUS P55T2P4 motherboard appears to be a good choice for a mid-to-high range Pentium server or workstation system. Those wishing to build more fault-tolerant systems should also be sure to use Parity memory or, for truly 24/7 applications, ECC memory. Note that ECC mem ory does involve a slight performance trade-off (which may or may not be noticeable depending on your application) but buys you significantly increased fault-tolerance to memory errors. _1_2_._2_._1_._2 _D_i_s_k _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s This one is a bit trickier, and while I used to recommend the Buslogic con trollers unilaterally for everything from ISA to PCI, now I tend to lean towards the Adaptec 1542CF for ISA, Buslogic Bt747c for EISA and Adaptec 2940UW for PCI. The NCR/Symbios cards for PCI have also worked well for me, though you need to make sure that your motherboard supports the BIOS-less model if you're using one of those (if your card has nothing which looks even vaguely like a ROM chip on it, you've probably got one which expects its BIOS to be on your mother board). If you should find that you need more than one SCSI controller in a PCI machine, you may wish to consider conserving your scarce PCI bus resources by buying the Adaptec 3940 card, which puts two SCSI controllers (and internal busses) in a single slot. Note that there are two types of 3940 on the market - the older model with AIC 7880 chips on it, and the newer one with AIC 7895 chips. The newer model requires CAM support which is not yet a part of FreeBSD - you have to add it, or install from one of the CAM binary snapshot releases (follow the URL). _1_2_._2_._1_._3 _D_i_s_k _d_r_i_v_e_s In this particular game of Russian roulette, I'll make few specific recommenda tions except to say "SCSI over IDE whenever you can afford it." Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI often makes more sense since it allows you to eas ily migrate drives from server to desktop as falling drive prices make it eco nomical to do so. If you have more than one machine to administer then think of it not simply as storage, think of it as a food chain! For a serious server configuration, there's not even any argument - use SCSI equipment and good cables. :) _1_2_._2_._1_._4 _C_D_R_O_M _d_r_i_v_e_s My SCSI preferences extend to SCSI CDROM drives as well, and while the Toshiba drives have always been favorites of mine (in whatever speed is hot that week), I'm still fond of my good old Plextor PX-12CS drive. It's only a 12 speed, but it's offered excellent performance and reliability. Generally speaking, most SCSI CDROM drives I've seen have been of pretty solid construction and you probably won't go wrong with an HP or NEC SCSI CDROM drive either. SCSI CDROM prices also appear to have dropped considerably in the last FreeBSD Handbook 200 few months and are now quite competitive with IDE CDROMs while remaining a technically superior solution. I now see no reason whatsoever to settle for an IDE CDROM drive if given a choice between the two. _1_2_._2_._1_._5 _C_D _R_e_c_o_r_d_a_b_l_e _(_W_O_R_M_) _d_r_i_v_e_s At the time of this writing, FreeBSD supports 3 types of CDR drives (though I believe they all ultimately come from Phillips anyway): The Phillips CDD 522 (Acts like a Plasmon), the PLASMON RF4100 and the HP 6020i. I myself use the HP 6020i for burning CDROMs (in 2.2 and later releases - it does not work with earlier releases of the SCSI code) and it works very well. See /usr/share/examples/worm on your system for example scripts used to created ISO9660 filesystem images (with RockRidge extensions) and burn them onto an HP6020i CDR. _1_2_._2_._1_._6 _T_a_p_e _d_r_i_v_e_s I've had pretty good luck with both 8mm drives from Exabyte and 4mm (DAT) drives from HP. For backup purposes, I'd have to give the higher recommendation to the Exabyte due to the more robust nature (and higher storage capacity) of 8mm tape. _1_2_._2_._1_._7 _V_i_d_e_o _C_a_r_d_s If you can also afford to buy a commercial X server for US$99 from Xi Graphics, Inc. (formerly X Inside, Inc) then I can heartily recommend the Matrox Mille nium II cards. Note that support for this card is also very good with the XFree86 server, which is now at version 3.3.2. You also certainly can't go wrong with one of Number 9's cards - their S3 Vision 868 and 968 based cards (the 9FX series) also being quite fast and very well supported by XFree86's S3 server in addition to being extremely cheap, nowadays. You can also pick up their Revolution 3D cards very cheaply these days, especially if you require a lot of video memory. _1_2_._2_._1_._8 _M_o_n_i_t_o_r_s I have had very good luck with the Sony Multiscan 17seII monitors, as have I with the Viewsonic offering in the same (Trinitron) tube. For larger than 17", all I can recommend at the time of this writing is to not spend any less than U.S. $2,000 for a 21" monitor or $1,700 for a 20" monitor if that's what you really need. There are good monitors available in the >=20" range and there are also cheap monitors in the >=20" range. Unfortunately, very few are both cheap and good! _1_2_._2_._1_._9 _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_i_n_g I can recommend the Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B card first and foremost, fol lowed by the SMC Ultra 16 controller for ISA applications and the SMC SMC9332DST, SMC EtherPower or Compex ENET32 cards for slightly cheaper PCI based networking. In general, any PCI NIC based around DEC's DC2104x Ethernet controller chip, such as the Zynx ZX342 or DEC DE435, will generally work quite well and can frequently be found in 2-port and 4-port versions (useful for FreeBSD Handbook 201 firewalls and routers), though the Pro/100B card has the edge when it comes to providing the best performance with the lowest overhead. If what you're looking for is the cheapest possible solution, on the other hand, then almost any NE2000 clone will do a fine job for very little cost. _1_2_._2_._1_._1_0 _S_e_r_i_a_l If you're looking for high-speed serial networking solutions, then Digi Inter national makes the SYNC/570 series, with drivers now in FreeBSD-current. Emerg ing Technologies also manufactures a board with T1/E1 capabilities, using soft ware they provide. I have no direct experience using either product, however. Multiport card options are somewhat more numerous, though it has to be said that FreeBSD's support for Cyclades's products is probably the tightest, pri marily as a result of that company's commitment to making sure that we are ade quately supplied with evaluation boards and technical specs. I've heard that the Cyclom-16Ye offers the best price/performance, though I've not checked the prices lately. Other multiport cards I've heard good things about are the BOCA and AST cards, and Stallion Technologies apparently offers an unofficial driver for their cards at this location. _1_2_._2_._1_._1_1 _A_u_d_i_o I currently use a Creative Labs AWE32 though just about anything from Creative Labs will generally work these days. This is not to say that other types of sound cards don't also work, simply that I have little experience with them (I was a former GUS fan, but Gravis's soundcard situation has been dire for some time). _1_2_._2_._1_._1_2 _V_i_d_e_o For video capture, there are two good choices - any card based on the Brooktree BT848 chip, such as the Hauppage or WinTV boards, will work very nicely with FreeBSD. Another board which works for me is the Matrox Meteor card. FreeBSD also supports the older video spigot card from Creative Labs, but those are getting somewhat difficult to find. Note that the Meteor frame grabber card _w_i_l_l _n_o_t _w_o_r_k with motherboards based on the 440FX chipset! See the _m_o_t_h_e_r_ _b_o_a_r_d _r_e_f_e_r_e_n_c_e (section 12.2.1.1, page 198) section for details. In such cases, it's better to go with a BT848 based board. _1_2_._3 _C_o_r_e_/_P_r_o_c_e_s_s_i_n_g _1_2_._3_._1 _M_o_t_h_e_r_b_o_a_r_d_s_, _b_u_s_s_e_s_, _a_n_d _c_h_i_p_s_e_t_s _1_2_._3_._1_._1 _* _I_S_A _1_2_._3_._1_._2 _* _E_I_S_A _1_2_._3_._1_._3 _* _V_L_B _1_2_._3_._1_._4 _P_C_I _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _D_a_v_i_d _O_'_B_r_i_e_n from postings by Rodney FreeBSD Handbook 202 Grimes . 25 April 1995. _C_o_n_t_i_n_u_i_n_g _u_p_d_a_t_e_s _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . Last update on _2_6 _A_u_g_u_s_t _1_9_9_6_. Of the Intel PCI chip sets, the following list describes various types of known-brokenness and the degree of breakage, listed from worst to best. Mercury: Cache coherency problems, especially if there are ISA bus masters behind the ISA to PCI bridge chip. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to turn the cache off. Saturn-I _(_i_e_, _8_2_4_2_4_Z_X _a_t _r_e_v _0_, _1 _o_r _2_): Write back cache coherency problems. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to set the external cache to write-through mode. Upgrade to Saturn-II. Saturn-II _(_i_e_, _8_2_4_2_4_Z_X _a_t _r_e_v _3 _o_r _4_): Works fine, but many MB manufactures leave out the external dirty bit SRAM needed for write back operation. Work arounds are either run it in write through mode, or get the dirty bit SRAM installed. (I have these for the ASUS PCI/I-486SP3G rev 1.6 and later boards). Neptune: Can not run more than 2 bus master devices. Admitted Intel design flaw. Workarounds include do not run more than 2 bus masters, spe cial hardware design to replace the PCI bus arbiter (appears on Intel Altair board and several other Intel server group MB's). And of course Intel's official answer, move to the Triton chip set, we ``fixed it there''. Triton _(_i_e_, _4_3_0_F_X_): No known cache coherency or bus master problems, chip set does not implement parity checking. Workaround for parity issue. Use Tri ton-II based motherboards if you have the choice. Triton-II _(_i_e_, _4_3_0_H_X_): All reports on motherboards using this chipset have been favorable so far. No known problems. Orion: Early versions of this chipset suffered from a PCI write-posting bug which can cause noticeable performance degradation in applica tions where large amounts of PCI bus traffic is involved. B0 step ping or later revisions of the chipset fixed this problem. 440FX: This Pentium Pro support chipset seems to work well, and does not suffer from any of the early Orion chipset problems. It also sup ports a wider variety of memory, including ECC and parity. The only known problem with it is that the Matrox Meteor frame grabber FreeBSD Handbook 203 card doesn't like it. _1_2_._3_._2 _C_P_U_s_/_F_P_U_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i . 26 December 1997. _1_2_._3_._2_._1 _P_6 _c_l_a_s_s _(_P_e_n_t_i_u_m _P_r_o_/_P_e_n_t_i_u_m _I_I_) Both the Pentium Pro and Pentium II work fine with FreeBSD. In fact, our main ftp site ftp.freebsd.org (also known as "ftp.cdrom.com", world's largest ftp site) runs FreeBSD on a Pentium Pro. Configurations details are available for interested parties. _1_2_._3_._2_._2 _P_e_n_t_i_u_m _c_l_a_s_s The Intel Pentium (P54C), Pentium MMX (P55C), AMD K6 and Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX pro cessors are all reported to work with FreeBSD. I will not go into details of which processor is faster than what, there are zillions of web sites on the Internet that tells you one way or another. :) Note that various CPUs have different voltage/cooling requirements. Make sure your motherboard can supply the exact voltage needed by the CPU. For instance, many recent MMX chips require split voltage (e.g., 2.9V core, 3.3V I/O). Also, some AMD and Cyrix/IBM chips run hotter than Intel chips. In that case, make sure you have good heatsink/fans (you can get the list of certified parts from their web pages). _1_2_._3_._2_._2_._1 _C_l_o_c_k _s_p_e_e_d_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _R_o_d_n_e_y _G_r_i_m_e_s . 1 October 1996. _U_p_d_a_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i . 27 December 1997. Pentium class machines use different clock speeds for the various parts of the system. These being the speed of the CPU, external memory bus, and the PCI bus. It is not always true that a "faster" processor will make a system faster than a "slower" one, due to the various clock speeds used. Below is a table showing the differences: FreeBSD Handbook 204 Rated External Clock External to PCI Bus CPU and Memory Bus Internal Clock Clock MHz MHz** Multiplier MHz 60 60 1.0 30 66 66 1.0 33 75 50 1.5 25 90 60 1.5 30 100 50* 2 25 100 66 1.5 33 120 60 2 30 133 66 2 33 150 60 2.5 30 (Intel, AMD) 150 75 2 37.5 (Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX) 166 66 2.5 33 180 60 3 30 200 66 3 33 233 66 3.5 33 * The Pentium 100 can be run at either 50MHz external clock with a multiplier of 2 or at 66MHz and a multiplier of 1.5. ** 66 MHz may actually be 66.667 MHz, but don't assume so. As can be seen the best parts to be using are the 100, 133, 166, 200 and 233, with the exception that at a multiplier of 3 or more the CPU starves for mem ory. _1_2_._3_._2_._2_._2 _T_h_e _A_M_D _K_6 _B_u_g In 1997, there have been reports of the AMD K6 seg faulting during heavy compi lation. That problem has been fixed in 3Q '97. According to reports, K6 chips with date mark "9733" or larger (i.e., manufactured in the 33rd week of '97 or later) do not have this bug. _1_2_._3_._2_._3 _* _4_8_6 _c_l_a_s_s _1_2_._3_._2_._4 _* _3_8_6 _c_l_a_s_s _1_2_._3_._2_._5 _2_8_6 _c_l_a_s_s Sorry, FreeBSD does not run on 80286 machines. It is nearly impossible to run today's large full-featured UNIXes on such hardware. _1_2_._3_._3 _* _M_e_m_o_r_y The minimum amount of memory you must have to install FreeBSD is 5 MB. Once your system is up and running you can _b_u_i_l_d _a _c_u_s_t_o_m _k_e_r_n_e_l (section 5.2, page 81) that will use less memory. If you use the boot4.flp you can get away with having only 4 MB. _1_2_._3_._4 _* _B_I_O_S FreeBSD Handbook 205 _1_2_._4 _I_n_p_u_t_/_O_u_t_p_u_t _D_e_v_i_c_e_s _1_2_._4_._1 _* _V_i_d_e_o _c_a_r_d_s _1_2_._4_._2 _* _S_o_u_n_d _c_a_r_d_s _1_2_._4_._3 _S_e_r_i_a_l _p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _m_u_l_t_i_p_o_r_t _c_a_r_d_s _1_2_._4_._3_._1 _T_h_e _U_A_R_T_: _W_h_a_t _i_t _i_s _a_n_d _h_o_w _i_t _w_o_r_k_s _C_o_p_y_r_i_g_h_t __1_9_9_6 _F_r_a_n_k _D_u_r_d_a _I_V , All Rights Reserved. 13 January 1996. The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for non-networked communi cation between computers, terminals and other devices. There are two primary forms of serial transmission: Synchronous and Asyn chronous. Depending on the modes that are supported by the hardware, the name of the communication sub-system will usually include a "A" if it supports Asyn chronous communications, and a "S" if it supports Synchronous communications. Both forms are described below. Some common acronyms are: UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._1 _S_y_n_c_h_r_o_n_o_u_s _S_e_r_i_a_l _T_r_a_n_s_m_i_s_s_i_o_n Synchronous serial transmission requires that the sender and receiver share a clock with one another, or that the sender provide a strobe or other timing signal so that the receiver knows when to "read" the next bit of the data. In most forms of serial Synchronous communication, if there is no data available at a given instant to transmit, a fill character must be sent instead so that data is always being transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more efficient because only data bits are transmitted between sender and receiver, and synchronous communication can be more more costly if extra wiring and cir cuits are required to share a clock signal between the sender and receiver. A form of Synchronous transmission is used with printers and fixed disk devices in that the data is sent on one set of wires while a clock or strobe is sent on a different wire. Printers and fixed disk devices are not normally serial devices because most fixed disk interface standards send an entire word of data for each clock or strobe signal by using a separate wire for each bit of the word. In the PC industry, these are known as Parallel devices. FreeBSD Handbook 206 The standard serial communications hardware in the PC does not support Syn chronous operations. This mode is described here for comparison purposes only. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._2 _A_s_y_n_c_h_r_o_n_o_u_s _S_e_r_i_a_l _T_r_a_n_s_m_i_s_s_i_o_n Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted without the sender hav ing to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each word which are used to synchronize the sending and receiving units. When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmit ted. The Start Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the days of mechani cal teleprinters and is easily met by modern electronic equipment.) After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and the receiver "looks" at the wire at approximately halfway through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the bit is a "1" or a "0". For example, if it takes two seconds to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to determine if it is a "1" or a "0" after one second has passed, then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of the next bit, and so on. The sender does not know when the receiver has "looked" at the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word. When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter. When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used), and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to the host processor when the data word is read. The usual cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal was interrupted. Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or not, the UART automat ically discards the Start, Parity and Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured identically, these bits are not passed to the host. If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the previous word has been sent. Because asynchronous data is "self synchronizing", if there is no data to FreeBSD Handbook 207 transmit, the transmission line can be idle. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._3 _O_t_h_e_r _U_A_R_T _F_u_n_c_t_i_o_n_s In addition to the basic job of converting data from parallel to serial for transmission and from serial to parallel on reception, a UART will usually pro vide additional circuits for signals that can be used to indicate the state of the transmission media, and to regulate the flow of data in the event that the remote device is not prepared to accept more data. For example, when the device connected to the UART is a modem, the modem may report the presence of a carrier on the phone line while the computer may be able to instruct the modem to reset itself or to not take calls by asserting or deasserting one more more of these extra signals. The function of each of these additional signals is defined in the EIA RS232-C standard. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._4 _T_h_e _R_S_2_3_2_-_C _a_n_d _V_._2_4 _S_t_a_n_d_a_r_d_s In most computer systems, the UART is connected to circuitry that generates signals that comply with the EIA RS232-C specification. There is also a CCITT standard named V.24 that mirrors the specifications included in RS232-C. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._4_._1 _R_S_2_3_2_-_C _B_i_t _A_s_s_i_g_n_m_e_n_t_s _(_M_a_r_k_s _a_n_d _S_p_a_c_e_s_) In RS232-C, a value of "1" is called a "Mark" and a value of "0" is called a "Space". When a com munication line is idle, the line is said to be "Marking", or transmitting con tinuous "1" values. The Start bit always has a value of "0" (a Space). The Stop Bit always has a value of "1" (a Mark). This means that there will always be a Mark (1) to Space (0) transition on the line at the start of every word, even when multiple word are transmitted back to back. This guarantees that sender and receiver can resynchronize their clocks regardless of the content of the data bits that are being transmitted. The idle time between Stop and Start bits does not have to be an exact multiple (including zero) of the bit rate of the communication link, but most UARTs are designed this way for simplicity. In RS232-C, the "Marking" signal (a "1") is represented by a voltage between -2 VDC and -12 VDC, and a "Spacing" signal (a "0") is represented by a voltage between 0 and +12 VDC. The transmitter is supposed to send +12 VDC or -12 VDC, and the receiver is supposed to allow for some voltage loss in long cables. Some transmitters in low power devices (like portable computers) sometimes use only +5 VDC and -5 VDC, but these values are still acceptable to a RS232-C receiver, provided that the cable lengths are short. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._4_._2 _R_S_2_3_2_-_C _B_r_e_a_k _S_i_g_n_a_l RS232-C also specifies a signal called a "Break", which is caused by sending continuous Spacing values (no Start or Stop bits). When there is no electricity present on the data circuit, the line is considered to be sending "Break". The "Break" signal must be of a duration longer than the time it takes to send a complete byte plus Start, Stop and Parity bits. Most UARTs can distinguish between a Framing Error and a Break, but if the UART cannot do this, the Fram ing Error detection can be used to identify Breaks. FreeBSD Handbook 208 In the days of teleprinters, when numerous printers around the country were wired in series (such as news services), any unit could cause a "Break" by tem porarily opening the entire circuit so that no current flowed. This was used to allow a location with urgent news to interrupt some other location that was currently sending information. In modern systems there are two types of Break signals. If the Break is longer than 1.6 seconds, it is considered a "Modem Break", and some modems can be pro grammed to terminate the conversation and go on-hook or enter the modems' com mand mode when the modem detects this signal. If the Break is smaller than 1.6 seconds, it signifies a Data Break and it is up to the remote computer to respond to this signal. Sometimes this form of Break is used as an Attention or Interrupt signal and sometimes is accepted as a substitute for the ASCII CONTROL-C character. Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to "Holes" and "No Holes" in paper tape systems. Note that Breaks cannot be generated from paper tape or from any other byte value, since bytes are always sent with Start and Stop bit. The UART is usu ally capable of generating the continuous Spacing signal in response to a spe cial command from the host processor. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._4_._3 _R_S_2_3_2_-_C _D_T_E _a_n_d _D_C_E _D_e_v_i_c_e_s The RS232-C specification defines two types of equipment: the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data Carrier Equipment (DCE). Usually, the DTE device is the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. Across the phone line at the other end of a conversation, the receiving modem is also a DCE device and the computer that is connected to that modem is a DTE device. The DCE device receives signals on the pins that the DTE device transmits on, and vice versa. When two devices that are both DTE or both DCE must be connected together with out a modem or a similar media translater between them, a NULL modem must be used. The NULL modem electrically re-arranges the cabling so that the trans mitter output is connected to the receiver input on the other device, and vice versa. Similar translations are performed on all of the control signals so that each device will see what it thinks are DCE (or DTE) signals from the other device. The number of signals generated by the DTE and DCE devices are not symmetrical. The DTE device generates fewer signals for the DCE device than the DTE device receives from the DCE. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._4_._4 _R_S_2_3_2_-_C _P_i_n _A_s_s_i_g_n_m_e_n_t_s The EIA RS232-C specification (and the ITU equivalent, V.24) calls for a twenty-five pin connector (usually a DB25) and defines the purpose of most of the pins in that connector. In the IBM Personal Computer and similar systems, a subset of RS232-C signals are provided via nine pin connectors (DB9). The signals that are not included on the PC connector deal mainly with synchronous operation, and this transmis sion mode is not supported by the UART that IBM selected for use in the IBM PC. Depending on the computer manufacturer, a DB25, a DB9, or both types of connec tor may be used for RS232-C communications. (The IBM PC also uses a DB25 FreeBSD Handbook 209 connector for the parallel printer interface which causes some confusion.) Below is a table of the RS232-C signal assignments in the DB25 and DB9 connec tors. DB25 DB9 EIA CCITT Common Signal Description RS232-C IBM PC Circuit Circuit Name Source Pin Pin Symbol Symbol 1 - AA 101 PG/FG --- Frame/Protective Ground 2 3 BA 103 TD DTE Transmit Data 3 2 BB 104 RD DCE Receive Data 4 7 CA 105 RTS DTE Request to Send 5 8 CB 106 CTS DCE Clear to Send 6 6 CC 107 DSR DCE Data Set Ready 7 5 AV 102 SG/GND --- Signal Ground 8 1 CF 109 DCD/CD DCE Data Carrier Detect 9 - - - - - Reserved for Test 10 - - - - - Reserved for Test 11 - - - - - Unassigned 12 - CI 122 SRLSD DCE Sec. Recv. Line Signal Detector 13 - SCB 121 SCTS DCE Secondary Clear To Send 14 - SBA 118 STD DTE Secondary Transmit Data 15 - DB 114 TSET DCE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 16 - SBB 119 SRD DCE Secondary Received Data 17 - DD 115 RSET DCE Receiver Signal Element Timing 18 - - 141 LOOP DTE Local Loopback 19 - SCA 120 SRS DTE Secondary Request to Send 20 4 CD 108.2 DTR DTE Data Terminal Ready 21 - - - RDL DTE Remote Digital Loopback 22 9 CE 125 RI DCE Ring Indicator 23 - CH 111 DSRS DTE Data Signal Rate Selector 24 - DA 113 TSET DTE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 25 - - 142 - DCE Test Mode _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._5 _B_i_t_s_, _B_a_u_d _a_n_d _S_y_m_b_o_l_s Baud is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication. Because of advances in modem communication technology, this term is frequently misused when describing the data rates in newer devices. Traditionally, a Baud Rate represents the number of bits that are actually being sent over the media, not the amount of data that is actually moved from one DTE device to the other. The Baud count includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and Parity that are generated by the sending UART and removed by the receiving UART. This means that seven-bit words of data actually take 10 bits to be completely transmitted. Therefore, a modem capable of moving 300 bits per second from one place to another can normally only move 30 7-bit words if Parity is used and one Start and Stop bit are present. If 8-bit data words are used and Parity bits are also used, the data rate falls to 27.27 words per second, because it now takes 11 bits to send the eight-bit words, and the modem still only sends 300 bits per second. FreeBSD Handbook 210 The formula for converting bytes per second into a baud rate and vice versa was simple until error-correcting modems came along. These modems receive the serial stream of bits from the UART in the host computer (even when internal modems are used the data is still frequently serialized) and converts the bits back into bytes. These bytes are then combined into packets and sent over the phone line using a Synchronous transmission method. This means that the Stop, Start, and Parity bits added by the UART in the DTE (the computer) were removed by the modem before transmission by the sending modem. When these bytes are received by the remote modem, the remote modem adds Start, Stop and Parity bits to the words, converts them to a serial format and then sends them to the receiving UART in the remote computer, who then strips the Start, Stop and Par ity bits. The reason all these extra conversions are done is so that the two modems can perform error correction, which means that the receiving modem is able to ask the sending modem to resend a block of data that was not received with the cor rect checksum. This checking is handled by the modems, and the DTE devices are usually unaware that the process is occurring. By striping the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the additional bits of data that the two modems must share between themselves to perform error-correction are mostly concealed from the effective transmission rate seen by the sending and receiving DTE equipment. For example, if a modem sends ten 7-bit words to another modem without including the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the sending modem will be able to add 30 bits of its own information that the receiving modem can use to do error-correction without impacting the transmission speed of the real data. The use of the term Baud is further confused by modems that perform compres sion. A single 8-bit word passed over the telephone line might represent a dozen words that were transmitted to the sending modem. The receiving modem will expand the data back to its original content and pass that data to the receiving DTE. Modern modems also include buffers that allow the rate that bits move across the phone line (DCE to DCE) to be a different speed than the speed that the bits move between the DTE and DCE on both ends of the conversation. Normally the speed between the DTE and DCE is higher than the DCE to DCE speed because of the use of compression by the modems. Because the number of bits needed to describe a byte varied during the trip between the two machines plus the differing bits-per-seconds speeds that are used present on the DTE-DCE and DCE-DCE links, the usage of the term Baud to describe the overall communication speed causes problems and can misrepresent the true transmission speed. So Bits Per Second (bps) is the correct term to use to describe the transmission rate seen at the DCE to DCE interface and Baud or Bits Per Second are acceptable terms to use when a connection is made between two systems with a wired connection, or if a modem is in use that is not performing error-correction or compression. Modern high speed modems (2400, 9600, 14,400, and 19,200bps) in reality still operate at or below 2400 baud, or more accurately, 2400 Symbols per second. High speed modem are able to encode more bits of data into each Symbol using a technique called Constellation Stuffing, which is why the effective bits per FreeBSD Handbook 211 second rate of the modem is higher, but the modem continues to operate within the limited audio bandwidth that the telephone system provides. Modems operat ing at 28,800 and higher speeds have variable Symbol rates, but the technique is the same. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._6 _T_h_e _I_B_M _P_e_r_s_o_n_a_l _C_o_m_p_u_t_e_r _U_A_R_T Starting with the original IBM Personal Computer, IBM selected the National Semiconductor INS8250 UART for use in the IBM PC Parallel/Serial Adapter. Sub sequent generations of compatible computers from IBM and other vendors contin ued to use the INS8250 or improved versions of the National Semiconductor UART family. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._6_._1 _N_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _S_e_m_i_c_o_n_d_u_c_t_o_r _U_A_R_T _F_a_m_i_l_y _T_r_e_e There have been several versions and subsequent generations of the INS8250 UART. Each major version is described below. INS8250 -> INS8250B \ \ \-> INS8250A -> INS82C50A \ \ \-> NS16450 -> NS16C450 \ \ \-> NS16550 -> NS16550A -> PC16550D INS8250 This part was used in the original IBM PC and IBM PC/XT. The orig inal name for this part was the INS8250 ACE (Asynchronous Communi cations Element) and it is made from NMOS technology. The 8250 uses eight I/O ports and has a one-byte send and a one- byte receive buffer. This original UART has several race condi tions and other flaws. The original IBM BIOS includes code to work around these flaws, but this made the BIOS dependent on the flaws being present, so subsequent parts like the 8250A, 16450 or 16550 could not be used in the original IBM PC or IBM PC/XT. INS8250-B This is the slower speed of the INS8250 made from NMOS technology. It contains the same problems as the original INS8250. INS8250A An improved version of the INS8250 using XMOS technology with vari ous functional flaws corrected. The INS8250A was used initially in PC clone computers by vendors who used "clean" BIOS designs. Because of the corrections in the chip, this part could not be used with a BIOS compatible with the INS8250 or INS8250B. INS82C50A This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the INS8250A and has similar functional characteristics. FreeBSD Handbook 212 NS16450 Same as NS8250A with improvements so it can be used with faster CPU bus designs. IBM used this part in the IBM AT and updated the IBM BIOS to no longer rely on the bugs in the INS8250. NS16C450 This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the NS16450. NS16550 Same as NS16450 with a 16-byte send and receive buffer but the buffer design was flawed and could not be reliably be used. NS16550A Same as NS16550 with the buffer flaws corrected. The 16550A and its successors have become the most popular UART design in the PC industry, mainly due it its ability to reliably handle higher data rates on operating systems with sluggish interrupt response times. NS16C552 This component consists of two NS16C550A CMOS UARTs in a single package. PC16550D Same as NS16550A with subtle flaws corrected. This is revision D of the 16550 family and is the latest design available from National Semiconductor. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._6_._2 _T_h_e _N_S_1_6_5_5_0_A_F _a_n_d _t_h_e _P_C_1_6_5_5_0_D _a_r_e _t_h_e _s_a_m_e _t_h_i_n_g National reor ganized their part numbering system a few years ago, and the NS16550AFN no longer exists by that name. (If you have a NS16550AFN, look at the date code on the part, which is a four digit number that usually starts with a nine. The first two digits of the number are the year, and the last two digits are the week in that year when the part was packaged. If you have a NS16550AFN, it is probably a few years old.) The new numbers are like PC16550DV, with minor differences in the suffix let ters depending on the package material and its shape. (A description of the numbering system can be found below.) It is important to understand that in some stores, you may pay $15(US) for a NS16550AFN made in 1990 and in the next bin are the new PC16550DN parts with minor fixes that National has made since the AFN part was in production, the PC16550DN was probably made in the past six months and it costs half (as low as $5(US) in volume) as much as the NS16550AFN because they are readily available. As the supply of NS16550AFN chips continues to shrink, the price will probably continue to increase until more people discover and accept that the PC16550DN really has the same function as the old part number. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._6_._3 _N_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _S_e_m_i_c_o_n_d_u_c_t_o_r _P_a_r_t _N_u_m_b_e_r_i_n_g _S_y_s_t_e_m The older NS_n_n_n_n_n_r_q_p part numbers are now of the format PC_n_n_n_n_n_r_g_p. The "_r" is the revision field. The current revision of the 16550 from National Semiconductor is "D". FreeBSD Handbook 213 The "_p" is the package-type field. The types are: "F" QFP (quad flat pack) L lead type "N" DIP (dual inline package) through hole straight lead type "V" LPCC (lead plastic chip carrier) J lead type The "_g" is the product grade field. If an "I" precedes the package-type let ter, it indicates an "industrial" grade part, which has higher specs than a standard part but not as high as Military Specification (Milspec) component. This is an optional field. So what we used to call a NS16550AFN (DIP Package) is now called a PC16550DN or PC16550DIN. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._7 _O_t_h_e_r _V_e_n_d_o_r_s _a_n_d _S_i_m_i_l_a_r _U_A_R_T_s Over the years, the 8250, 8250A, 16450 and 16550 have been licensed or copied by other chip vendors. In the case of the 8250, 8250A and 16450, the exact circuit (the "megacell") was licensed to many vendors, including Western Digi tal and Intel. Other vendors reverse-engineered the part or produced emula tions that had similar behavior. In internal modems, the modem designer will frequently emulate the 8250A/16450 with the modem microprocessor, and the emulated UART will frequently have a hidden buffer consisting of several hundred bytes. Because of the size of the buffer, these emulations can be as reliable as a 16550A in their ability to handle high speed data. However, most operating systems will still report that the UART is only a 8250A or 16450, and may not make effective use of the extra buffering present in the emulated UART unless special drivers are used. Some modem makers are driven by market forces to abandon a design that has hun dreds of bytes of buffer and instead use a 16550A UART so that the product will compare favorably in market comparisons even though the effective performance may be lowered by this action. A common misconception is that all parts with "16550A" written on them are identical in performance. There are differences, and in some cases, outright flaws in most of these 16550A clones. When the NS16550 was developed, the National Semiconductor obtained several patents on the design and they also limited licensing, making it harder for other vendors to provide a chip with similar features. Because of the patents, reverse-engineered designs and emulations had to avoid infringing the claims covered by the patents. Subsequently, these copies almost never perform exactly the same as the NS16550A or PC16550D, which are the parts most computer and modem makers want to buy but are sometimes unwilling to pay the price required to get the genuine part. Some of the differences in the clone 16550A parts are unimportant, while others can prevent the device from being used at all with a given operating system or driver. These differences may show up when using other drivers, or when par ticular combinations of events occur that were not well tested or considered in the Windows driver. This is because most modem vendors and 16550-clone makers use the Microsoft drivers from Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and the Microsoft FreeBSD Handbook 214 MSD utility as the primary tests for compatibility with the NS16550A. This over-simplistic criteria means that if a different operating system is used, problems could appear due to subtle differences between the clones and genuine components. National Semiconductor has made available a program named COMTEST that performs compatibility tests independent of any OS drivers. It should be remembered that the purpose of this type of program is to demonstrate the flaws in the products of the competition, so the program will report major as well as extremely subtle differences in behavior in the part being tested. In a series of tests performed by the author of this document in 1994, compo nents made by National Semiconductor, TI, StarTech, and CMD as well as mega cells and emulations embedded in internal modems were tested with COMTEST. A difference count for some of these components is listed below. Because these tests were performed in 1994, they may not reflect the current performance of the given product from a vendor. It should be noted that COMTEST normally aborts when an excessive number or certain types of problems have been detected. As part of this testing, COMTEST was modified so that it would not abort no matter how many differences were encountered. Vendor Part number Errors aka "differences" reported National (PC16550DV) 0 * National (NS16550AFN) 0 National (NS16C552V) 0 * TI (TL16550AFN) 3 CMD (16C550PE) 19 StarTech (ST16C550J) 23 Rockwell reference modem with internal 16550 or an emulation (RC144DPi/C3000-25) 117 Sierra modem with an internal 16550 (SC11951/SC11351) 91 It is important to understand that a simple count of differences from COMTEST does not reveal a lot about what differences are important and which are not. For example, about half of the differences reported in the two modems listed above that have internal UARTs were caused by the clone UARTs not supporting five- and six-bit character modes. The real 16550, 16450, and 8250 UARTs all support these modes and COMTEST checks the functionality of these modes so over fifty differences are reported. However, almost no modern modem supports five- or six-bit characters, particularly those with error-correction and compression capabilities. This means that the differences related to five- and six-bit character modes can be discounted. FreeBSD Handbook 215 Many of the differences COMTEST reports have to do with timing. In many of the clone designs, when the host reads from one port, the status bits in some other port may not update in the same amount of time (some faster, some slower) as a _r_e_a_l NS16550AFN and COMTEST looks for these differences. This means that the number of differences can be misleading in that one device may only have one or two differences but they are extremely serious, and some other device that updates the status registers faster or slower than the reference part (that would probably never affect the operation of a properly written driver) could have dozens of differences reported. * To date, the author of this document has not found any non-National parts that report zero differences using the COMTEST program. It should also be noted that National has had five versions of the 16550 over the years and the newest parts behave a bit differently than the classic NS16550AFN that is con sidered the benchmark for functionality. COMTEST appears to turn a blind eye to the differences within the National product line and reports no errors on the National parts (except for the original 16550) even when there are official erratas that describe bugs in the A, B and C revisions of the parts, so this bias in COMTEST must be taken into account. COMTEST can be used as a screening tool to alert the administrator to the pres ence of potentially incompatible components that might cause problems or have to be handled as a special case. If you run COMTEST on a 16550 that is in a modem or a modem is attached to the serial port, you need to first issue a ATE0&W command to the modem so that the modem will not echo any of the test characters. If you forget to do this, COMTEST will report at least this one difference: Error (6)...Timeout interrupt failed: IIR = c1 LSR = 61 _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._8 _8_2_5_0_/_1_6_4_5_0_/_1_6_5_5_0 _R_e_g_i_s_t_e_r_s The 8250/16450/16550 UART occupies eight contiguous I/O port addresses. In the IBM PC, there are two defined locations for these eight ports and they are known collectively as COM1 and COM2. The makers of PC-clones and add-on cards have created two additional areas known as COM3 and COM4, but these extra COM ports conflict with other hardware on some systems. The most common conflict is with video adapters that provide IBM 8514 emulation. COM1 is located from 0x3f8 to 0x3ff and normally uses IRQ 4 COM2 is located from 0x2f8 to 0x2ff and normally uses IRQ 3 COM3 is located from 0x3e8 to 0x3ef and has no standardized IRQ COM4 is located from 0x2e8 to 0x2ef and has no standardized IRQ A description of the I/O ports of the 8250/16450/16550 UART is provided below. FreeBSD Handbook 216 I/O Access Description Port Allowed +0x00 write Transmit Holding Register (THR) (DLAB==0) Information written to this port are treated as data words and will be transmitted by the UART. +0x00 read Receive Buffer Register (RBR) (DLAB==0) Any data words received by the UART from the serial link are accessed by the host by reading this port. +0x00 write/read Divisor Latch LSB (DLL) (DLAB==1) This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 0 thru 7 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read Divisor Latch MSB (DLH) (DLAB==1) This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 8 thru 15 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read Interrupt Enable Register (IER) (DLAB==0) The 8250/16450/16550 UART classifies events into one of four categories. Each category can be configured to generate an interrupt when any of the events occurs. The 8250/16450/16550 UART generates a single external interrupt signal regardless of how many events in the enabled categories have occurred. It is up to the host processor to respond to the interrupt and then poll the enabled interrupt categories (usually all categories have interrupts enabled) to determine the true cause(s) of the interrupt. Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Enable Modem Status Interrupt (EDSSI) FreeBSD Handbook 217 Setting this bit to "1" allows the UART to generate an interrupt when a change occurs on one or more of the status lines. Bit 2 Enable Receiver Line Status Interrupt (ELSI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the an error (or a BREAK signal) has been detected in the incoming data. Bit 1 Enable Transmitter Holding Register Empty Interrupt (ETBEI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has room for one or more additional characters that are to be transmitted. Bit 0 Enable Received Data Available Interrupt (ERBFI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has received enough characters to exceed the trigger level of the FIFO, or the FIFO timer has expired (stale data), or a single character has been received when the FIFO is disabled. +0x02 write FIFO Control Register (FCR) (This port does not exist on the 8250 and 16450 UART.) Bit 7 Receiver Trigger Bit #1 Bit 6 Receiver Trigger Bit #0 These two bits control at what point the receiver is to generate an interrupt when the FIFO is active. 7 6 How many words are received before an interrupt is generated. 0 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 8 1 1 14 Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. FreeBSD Handbook 218 Bit 3 DMA Mode Select If Bit 0 is set to "1" (FIFOs enabled), setting this bit changes the operation of the -RXRDY and -TXRDY signals from Mode 0 to Mode 1. Bit 2 Transmit FIFO Reset When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being transmitted will be sent intact. This function is useful in aborting transfers. Bit 1 Receiver FIFO Reset When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being assembled in the shift register will be received intact. Bit 0 16550 FIFO Enable When set, both the transmit and receive FIFOs are enabled. Any contents in the holding register, shift registers or FIFOs are lost when FIFOs are enabled or disabled. +0x02 read Interrupt Identification Register (IIR) Bit 7 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 6 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Interrupt ID Bit #2 On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 2 Interrupt ID Bit #1 Bit 1 Interrupt ID Bit #0 These three bits combine to report the category of event that caused the interrupt that is in progress. These categories have priorities, so if multiple categories of events occur at the same time, the UART will report the more important events first and the host must resolve the events in the order they are reported. All events that caused the current interrupt must be resolved before FreeBSD Handbook 219 any new interrupts will be generated. (This is a limitation of the PC architecture.) 2 1 0 Priority Description 0 1 1 First Receiver Error (OE, PE, BI or FE) 0 1 0 Second Received Data Available 1 1 0 Second Trigger level identification (Stale data in receive buffer) 0 0 1 Third Transmitter has room for more words (THRE) 0 0 0 Fourth Modem Status Change (-CTS, -DSR, -RI, or -DCD) Bit 0 Interrupt Pending Bit If this bit is set to "0", then at least one interrupt is pending. +0x03 write/read Line Control Register (LCR) Bit 7 Divisor Latch Access Bit (DLAB) When set, access to the data transmit/receive register (THR/RBR) and the Interrupt Enable Register (IER) is disabled. Any access to these ports is now redirected to the Divisor Latch Registers. Setting this bit, loading the Divisor Registers, and clearing DLAB should be done with interrupts disabled. Bit 6 Set Break When set to "1", the transmitter begins to transmit continuous Spacing until this bit is set to "0". This overrides any bits of characters that are being transmitted. Bit 5 Stick Parity When parity is enabled, setting this bit causes parity to always be "1" or FreeBSD Handbook 220 "0", based on the value of Bit 4. Bit 4 Even Parity Select (EPS) When parity is enabled and Bit 5 is "0", setting this bit causes even parity to be transmitted and expected. Otherwise, odd parity is used. Bit 3 Parity Enable (PEN) When set to "1", a parity bit is inserted between the last bit of the data and the Stop Bit. The UART will also expect parity to be present in the received data. Bit 2 Number of Stop Bits (STB) If set to "1" and using 5-bit data words, 1.5 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected in each data word. For 6, 7 and 8-bit data words, 2 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected. When this bit is set to "0", one Stop Bit is used on each data word. Bit 1 Word Length Select Bit #1 (WLSB1) Bit 0 Word Length Select Bit #0 (WLSB0) Together these bits specify the number of bits in each data word. 1 0 Word Length 0 0 5 Data Bits 0 1 6 Data Bits 1 0 7 Data Bits 1 1 8 Data Bits +0x04 write/read Modem Control Register (MCR) Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Loop-Back Enable When set to "1", the UART transmitter and receiver are internally connected together to allow diagnostic operations. In addition, the UART modem control outputs are connected to the UART modem control inputs. CTS is connected to RTS, DTR is connected to DSR, OUT1 is connected to RI, and OUT 2 is connected FreeBSD Handbook 221 to DCD. Bit 3 OUT 2 An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. In the IBM PC serial adapter (and most clones), OUT 2 is used to tri-state (disable) the interrupt signal from the 8250/16450/16550 UART. Bit 2 OUT 1 An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. This output is not used on the IBM PC serial adapter. Bit 1 Request to Send (RTS) When set to "1", the output of the UART -RTS line is Low (Active). Bit 0 Data Terminal Ready (DTR) When set to "1", the output of the UART -DTR line is Low (Active). +0x05 write/read Line Status Register (LSR) Bit 7 Error in Receiver FIFO On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. This bit is set to "1" when any of the bytes in the FIFO have one or more of the following error conditions: PE, FE, or BI. Bit 6 Transmitter Empty (TEMT) When set to "1", there are no words remaining in the transmit FIFO or the transmit shift register. The transmitter is completely idle. Bit 5 Transmitter Holding Register Empty (THRE) When set to "1", the FIFO (or holding register) now has room for at least one additional word to transmit. The transmitter may still be transmitting when this bit is set to "1". Bit 4 Break Interrupt (BI) The receiver has detected a Break signal. Bit 3 Framing Error (FE) A Start Bit was detected but the Stop Bit did not appear at the expected time. The received word is probably garbled. FreeBSD Handbook 222 Bit 2 Parity Error (PE) The parity bit was incorrect for the word received. Bit 1 Overrun Error (OE) A new word was received and there was no room in the receive buffer. The newly-arrived word in the shift register is discarded. On 8250/16450 UARTs, the word in the holding register is discarded and the newly- arrived word is put in the holding register. Bit 0 Data Ready (DR) One or more words are in the receive FIFO that the host may read. A word must be completely received and moved from the shift register into the FIFO (or holding register for 8250/16450 designs) before this bit is set. +0x06 write/read Modem Status Register (MSR) Bit 7 Data Carrier Detect (DCD) Reflects the state of the DCD line on the UART. Bit 6 Ring Indicator (RI) Reflects the state of the RI line on the UART. Bit 5 Data Set Ready (DSR) Reflects the state of the DSR line on the UART. Bit 4 Clear To Send (CTS) Reflects the state of the CTS line on the UART. Bit 3 Delta Data Carrier Detect (DDCD) Set to "1" if the -DCD line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 2 Trailing Edge Ring Indicator (TERI) Set to "1" if the -RI line has had a low to high transition since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 1 Delta Data Set Ready (DDSR) Set to "1" if the -DSR line has changed FreeBSD Handbook 223 state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 0 Delta Clear To Send (DCTS) Set to "1" if the -CTS line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. +0x07 write/read Scratch Register (SCR) This register performs no function in the UART. Any value can be written by the host to this location and read by the host later on. _1_2_._4_._3_._1_._9 _B_e_y_o_n_d _t_h_e _1_6_5_5_0_A _U_A_R_T Although National Semiconductor has not offered any components compatible with the 16550 that provide additional features, various other vendors have. Some of these components are described below. It should be understood that to effectively utilize these improvements, drivers may have to be provided by the chip vendor since most of the popular operating systems do not support features beyond those provided by the 16550. ST16650 By default this part is similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 32-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Startech. TIL16660 By default this part behaves similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 64-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Texas Instruments. Hayes ESP This proprietary plug-in card contains a 2048-byte send and receive buffer, and supports data rates to 230.4Kbit/sec. Made by Hayes. In addition to these "dumb" UARTs, many vendors produce intelligent serial com munication boards. This type of design usually provides a microprocessor that interfaces with several UARTs, processes and buffers the data, and then alerts the main PC processor when necessary. Because the UARTs are not directly accessed by the PC processor in this type of communication system, it is not necessary for the vendor to use UARTs that are compatible with the 8250, 16450, or the 16550 UART. This leaves the designer free to components that may have better performance characteristics. _1_2_._4_._3_._2 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _s_i_o _d_r_i_v_e_r The sio driver provides support for NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550 and NS16550A- based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. Several multiport cards are supported as well. See the sio(4) manual page for detailed technical documentation. FreeBSD Handbook 224 _1_2_._4_._3_._2_._1 _D_i_g_i _I_n_t_e_r_n_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _(_D_i_g_i_B_o_a_r_d_) _P_C_/_8 _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _A_n_d_r_e_w _W_e_b_s_t_e_r . 26 August 1995. Here is a config snippet from a machine with a Digi International PC/8 with 16550. It has 8 modems connected to these 8 lines, and they work just great. Do not forget to add options COM_MULTIPORT or it will not work very well! device sio4 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0xb05 device sio5 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0xb05 device sio6 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0xb05 device sio7 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0xb05 device sio8 at isa? port 0x120 tty flags 0xb05 device sio9 at isa? port 0x128 tty flags 0xb05 device sio10 at isa? port 0x130 tty flags 0xb05 device sio11 at isa? port 0x138 tty flags 0xb05 irq 9 vector siointr The trick in setting this up is that the MSB of the flags represent the last SIO port, in this case 11 so flags are 0xb05. _1_2_._4_._3_._2_._2 _B_o_c_a _1_6 _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _D_o_n _W_h_i_t_e_s_i_d_e . 26 August 1995. The procedures to make a Boca 16 pord board with FreeBSD are pretty straight forward, but you will need a couple things to make it work: 1. You either need the kernel sources installed so you can recompile the necessary options or you will need someone else to compile it for you. The 2.0.5 default kernel does nnoott come with multiport support enabled and you will need to add a device entry for each port anyways. 2. Two, you will need to know the interrupt and IO setting for your Boca Board so you can set these options properly in the kernel. One important note - the actual UART chips for the Boca 16 are in the connector box, not on the internal board itself. So if you have it unplugged, probes of those ports will fail. I have never tested booting with the box unplugged and plugging it back in, and I suggest you do not either. If you do not already have a custom kernel configuration file set up, refer to _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) for general procedures. The follow ing are the specifics for the Boca 16 board and assume you are using the kernel name MYKERNEL and editing with vi. 1. Add the line options COM_MULTIPORT to the config file. FreeBSD Handbook 225 2. Where the current device sio _x_x_x lines are, you will need to add 16 more devices. _O_n_l_y _t_h_e _l_a_s_t _d_e_v_i_c_e _i_n_c_l_u_d_e_s _t_h_e _i_n_t_e_r_r_u_p_t _v_e_c_t_o_r _f_o_r _t_h_e _b_o_a_r_d. (See the sio(4) manual page for detail as to why.) The following example is for a Boca Board with an interrupt of 3, and a base IO address 100h. The IO address for Each port is +8 hexadecimal from the previous port, thus the 100h, 108h, 110h... addresses. device sio1 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0x1005 device sio2 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0x1005 device sio3 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0x1005 device sio4 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0x1005 [...] device sio15 at isa? port 0x170 tty flags 0x1005 device sio16 at isa? port 0x178 tty flags 0x1005 irq 3 vector siointr The flags entry _m_u_s_t be changed from this example unless you are using the exact same sio assignments. Flags are set according to 0x_M_Y_Y where _M indicates the minor number of the master port (the last port on a Boca 16) and _Y_Y indicates if FIFO is enabled or disabled(enabled), IRQ sharing is used(yes) and if there is an AST/4 compatible IRQ control regis ter(no). In this example, flags 0x1005 indicates that the master port is sio16. If I added another board and assigned sio17 through sio28, the flags for all 16 ports on _t_h_a_t board would be 0x1C05, where 1C indicates the minor number of the master port. Do not change the 05 setting. 3. Save and complete the kernel configuration, recompile, install and reboot. Presuming you have successfully installed the recompiled kernel and have it set to the correct address and IRQ, your boot message should indicate the successful probe of the Boca ports as follows: (obviously the sio numbers, IO and IRQ could be different) FreeBSD Handbook 226 sio1 at 0x100-0x107 flags 0x1005 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2 at 0x108-0x10f flags 0x1005 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport) sio3 at 0x110-0x117 flags 0x1005 on isa sio3: type 16550A (multiport) sio4 at 0x118-0x11f flags 0x1005 on isa sio4: type 16550A (multiport) sio5 at 0x120-0x127 flags 0x1005 on isa sio5: type 16550A (multiport) sio6 at 0x128-0x12f flags 0x1005 on isa sio6: type 16550A (multiport) sio7 at 0x130-0x137 flags 0x1005 on isa sio7: type 16550A (multiport) sio8 at 0x138-0x13f flags 0x1005 on isa sio8: type 16550A (multiport) sio9 at 0x140-0x147 flags 0x1005 on isa sio9: type 16550A (multiport) sio10 at 0x148-0x14f flags 0x1005 on isa sio10: type 16550A (multiport) sio11 at 0x150-0x157 flags 0x1005 on isa sio11: type 16550A (multiport) sio12 at 0x158-0x15f flags 0x1005 on isa sio12: type 16550A (multiport) sio13 at 0x160-0x167 flags 0x1005 on isa sio13: type 16550A (multiport) sio14 at 0x168-0x16f flags 0x1005 on isa sio14: type 16550A (multiport) sio15 at 0x170-0x177 flags 0x1005 on isa sio15: type 16550A (multiport) sio16 at 0x178-0x17f irq 3 flags 0x1005 on isa sio16: type 16550A (multiport master) If the messages go by too fast to see, dmesg > more will show you the boot messages. 4. Next, appropriate entries in /dev for the devices must be made using the /dev/MAKEDEV script. After becoming root: # cd /dev # ./MAKEDEV tty1 # ./MAKEDEV cua1 _(_e_v_e_r_y_t_h_i_n_g _i_n _b_e_t_w_e_e_n_) # ./MAKEDEV ttyg # ./MAKEDEV cuag FreeBSD Handbook 227 If you do not want or need callout devices for some reason, you can dis pense with making the cua* devices. 5. If you want a quick and sloppy way to make sure the devices are working, you can simply plug a modem into each port and (as root) echo at > ttyd* for each device you have made. You _s_h_o_u_l_d see the RX lights flash for each working port. _1_2_._4_._3_._3 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _c_y _d_r_i_v_e_r _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _A_l_e_x _N_a_s_h . 6 June 1996. The Cyclades multiport cards are based on the cy driver instead of the usual sio driver used by other multiport cards. Configuration is a simple matter of: 1. Add the cy device to your _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5.3, page 82) (note that your irq and iomem settings may differ). device cy0 at isa? tty irq 10 iomem 0xd4000 iosiz 0x2000 vector cyintr 2. _R_e_b_u_i_l_d _a_n_d _i_n_s_t_a_l_l (section 5.2, page 81) the new kernel. 3. Make the _d_e_v_i_c_e _n_o_d_e_s (section 5.4, page 97) by typing (the following example assumes an 8-port board): # cd /dev # for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;do ./MAKEDEV cuac$i ttyc$i;done 4. If appropriate, add _d_i_a_l_u_p (section 14.3, page 277) entries to _/_e_t_c_/_t_t_y_s (section 14.3.5.2, page 285) by duplicating serial device (ttyd) entries and using ttyc in place of ttyd. For example: ttyc0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure [...] ttyc7 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure 5. Reboot with the new kernel. _1_2_._4_._4 _* _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _p_o_r_t_s FreeBSD Handbook 228 _1_2_._4_._5 _* _M_o_d_e_m_s _1_2_._4_._6 _* _N_e_t_w_o_r_k _c_a_r_d_s _1_2_._4_._7 _* _K_e_y_b_o_a_r_d_s _1_2_._4_._8 _* _M_i_c_e _1_2_._4_._9 _* _O_t_h_e_r _1_2_._5 _S_t_o_r_a_g_e _D_e_v_i_c_e_s _1_2_._5_._1 _U_s_i_n_g _E_S_D_I _h_a_r_d _d_i_s_k_s _C_o_p_y_r_i_g_h_t __1_9_9_5_, _W_i_l_k_o _B_u_l_t_e . 24 September 1995. ESDI is an acronym that means Enhanced Small Device Interface. It is loosely based on the good old ST506/412 interface originally devised by Seagate Tech nology, the makers of the first affordable 5.25" winchester disk. The acronym says Enhanced, and rightly so. In the first place the speed of the interface is higher, 10 or 15 Mbits/second instead of the 5 Mbits/second of ST412 interfaced drives. Secondly some higher level commands are added, making the ESDI interface somewhat 'smarter' to the operating system driver writers. It is by no means as smart as SCSI by the way. ESDI is standardized by ANSI. Capacities of the drives are boosted by putting more sectors on each track. Typical is 35 sectors per track, high capacity drives I have seen were up to 54 sectors/track. Although ESDI has been largely obsoleted by IDE and SCSI interfaces, the avail ability of free or cheap surplus drives makes them ideal for low (or now) bud get systems. _1_2_._5_._1_._1 _C_o_n_c_e_p_t_s _o_f _E_S_D_I _1_2_._5_._1_._1_._1 _P_h_y_s_i_c_a_l _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n_s The ESDI interface uses two cables connected to each drive. One cable is a 34 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the command and status signals from the controller to the drive and vice-versa. The command cable is daisy chained between all the drives. So, it forms a bus onto which all drives are connected. The second cable is a 20 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the data to and from the drive. This cable is radially connected, so each drive has its own direct connection to the controller. To the best of my knowledge PC ESDI controllers are limited to using a maximum of 2 drives per controller. This is compatibility feature(?) left over from the WD1003 standard that reserves only a single bit for device addressing. FreeBSD Handbook 229 _1_2_._5_._1_._1_._2 _D_e_v_i_c_e _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_i_n_g On each command cable a maximum of 7 devices and 1 controller can be present. To enable the controller to uniquely identify which drive it addresses, each ESDI device is equipped with jumpers or switches to select the devices address. On PC type controllers the first drive is set to address 0, the second disk to address 1. _A_l_w_a_y_s _m_a_k_e _s_u_r_e you set each disk to an unique address! So, on a PC with its two drives/controller maximum the first drive is drive 0, the second is drive 1. _1_2_._5_._1_._1_._3 _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_t_i_o_n The daisy chained command cable (the 34 pin cable remember?) needs to be ter minated at the last drive on the chain. For this purpose ESDI drives come with a termination resistor network that can be removed or disabled by a jumper when it is not used. So, one and _o_n_l_y one drive, the one at the farthest end of the command cable has its terminator installed/enabled. The controller automatically terminates the other end of the cable. Please note that this implies that the controller must be at one end of the cable and _n_o_t in the middle. _1_2_._5_._1_._2 _U_s_i_n_g _E_S_D_I _d_i_s_k_s _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D Why is ESDI such a pain to get working in the first place? People who tried ESDI disks with FreeBSD are known to have developed a profound sense of frustration. A combination of factors works against you to produce effects that are hard to understand when you have never seen them before. This has also led to the popular legend ESDI and FreeBSD is a plain NO-GO. The following sections try to list all the pitfalls and solutions. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._1 _E_S_D_I _s_p_e_e_d _v_a_r_i_a_n_t_s As briefly mentioned before, ESDI comes in two speed flavors. The older drives and controllers use a 10 Mbits/second data transfer rate. Newer stuff uses 15 Mbits/second. It is not hard to imagine that 15 Mbits/second drive cause problems on con trollers laid out for 10 Mbits/second. As always, consult your controller _a_n_d drive documentation to see if things match. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._2 _S_t_a_y _o_n _t_r_a_c_k Mainstream ESDI drives use 34 to 36 sectors per track. Most (older) con trollers cannot handle more than this number of sectors. Newer, higher capac ity, drives use higher numbers of sectors per track. For instance, I own a 670 Mb drive that has 54 sectors per track. In my case, the controller could not handle this number of sectors. It proved to work well except that it only used 35 sectors on each track. This meant los ing a lot of disk space. FreeBSD Handbook 230 Once again, check the documentation of your hardware for more info. Going out- of-spec like in the example might or might not work. Give it a try or get another more capable controller. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._3 _H_a_r_d _o_r _s_o_f_t _s_e_c_t_o_r_i_n_g Most ESDI drives allow hard or soft sectoring to be selected using a jumper. Hard sectoring means that the drive will produce a sector pulse on the start of each new sector. The controller uses this pulse to tell when it should start to write or read. Hard sectoring allows a selection of sector size (normally 256, 512 or 1024 bytes per formatted sector). FreeBSD uses 512 byte sectors. The number of sec tors per track also varies while still using the same number of bytes per for matted sector. The number of _u_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_t_e_d bytes per sector varies, dependent on your controller it needs more or less overhead bytes to work correctly. Pushing more sectors on a track of course gives you more usable space, but might give problems if your controller needs more bytes than the drive offers. In case of soft sectoring, the controller itself determines where to start/stop reading or writing. For ESDI hard sectoring is the default (at least on every thing I came across). I never felt the urge to try soft sectoring. In general, experiment with sector settings before you install FreeBSD because you need to re-run the low-level format after each change. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._4 _L_o_w _l_e_v_e_l _f_o_r_m_a_t_t_i_n_g ESDI drives need to be low level formatted before they are usable. A reformat is needed whenever you figgle with the number of sectors/track jumpers or the physical orientation of the drive (horizontal, vertical). So, first think, then format. The format time must not be underestimated, for big disks it can take hours. After a low level format, a surface scan is done to find and flag bad sectors. Most disks have a manufacturer bad block list listed on a piece of paper or adhesive sticker. In addition, on most disks the list is also written onto the disk. Please use the manufacturer's list. It is much easier to remap a defect now than after FreeBSD is installed. Stay away from low-level formatters that mark all sectors of a track as bad as soon as they find one bad sector. Not only does this waste space, it also and more importantly causes you grief with bad144 (see the section on bad144). _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._5 _T_r_a_n_s_l_a_t_i_o_n_s Translations, although not exclusively a ESDI-only problem, might give you real trouble. Translations come in multiple flavors. Most of them have in common that they attempt to work around the limitations posed upon disk geometries by the original IBM PC/AT design (thanks IBM!). First of all there is the (in)famous 1024 cylinder limit. For a system to be able to boot, the stuff (whatever operating system) must be in the first 1024 cylinders of a disk. Only 10 bits are available to encode the cylinder number. FreeBSD Handbook 231 For the number of sectors the limit is 64 (0-63). When you combine the 1024 cylinder limit with the 16 head limit (also a design feature) you max out at fairly limited disk sizes. To work around this problem, the manufacturers of ESDI PC controllers added a BIOS prom extension on their boards. This BIOS extension handles disk I/O for booting (and for some operating systems _a_l_l disk I/O) by using translation. For instance, a big drive might be presented to the system as having 32 heads and 64 sectors/track. The result is that the number of cylinders is reduced to something below 1024 and is therefore usable by the system without problems. It is noteworthy to know that FreeBSD does not use the BIOS after its kernel has started. More on this later. A second reason for translations is the fact that most older system BIOSes could only handle drives with 17 sectors per track (the old ST412 standard). Newer system BIOSes usually have a user-defined drive type (in most cases this is drive type 47). _W_h_a_t_e_v_e_r _y_o_u _d_o _t_o _t_r_a_n_s_l_a_t_i_o_n_s _a_f_t_e_r _r_e_a_d_i_n_g _t_h_i_s _d_o_c_u_m_e_n_t_, _k_e_e_p _i_n _m_i_n_d _t_h_a_t _i_f _y_o_u _h_a_v_e _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _o_p_e_r_a_t_i_n_g _s_y_s_t_e_m_s _o_n _t_h_e _s_a_m_e _d_i_s_k_, _a_l_l _m_u_s_t _u_s_e _t_h_e _s_a_m_e _t_r_a_n_s_l_a_t_i_o_n While on the subject of translations, I have seen one controller type (but there are probably more like this) offer the option to logically split a drive in multiple partitions as a BIOS option. I had select 1 drive == 1 partition because this controller wrote this info onto the disk. On power-up it read the info and presented itself to the system based on the info from the disk. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._6 _S_p_a_r_e _s_e_c_t_o_r_i_n_g Most ESDI controllers offer the possibility to remap bad sectors. During/after the low-level format of the disk bad sectors are marked as such, and a replace ment sector is put in place (logically of course) of the bad one. In most cases the remapping is done by using N-1 sectors on each track for actual data storage, and sector N itself is the spare sector. N is the total number of sectors physically available on the track. The idea behind this is that the operating system sees a 'perfect' disk without bad sectors. In the case of FreeBSD this concept is not usable. The problem is that the translation from _b_a_d to _g_o_o_d is performed by the BIOS of the ESDI controller. FreeBSD, being a true 32 bit operating system, does not use the BIOS after it has been booted. Instead, it has device drivers that talk directly to the hardware. _S_o_: _d_o_n_'_t _u_s_e _s_p_a_r_e _s_e_c_t_o_r_i_n_g_, _b_a_d _b_l_o_c_k _r_e_m_a_p_p_i_n_g _o_r _w_h_a_t_e_v_e_r _i_t _m_a_y _b_e _c_a_l_l_e_d _b_y _t_h_e _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r _m_a_n_u_f_a_c_t_u_r_e_r _w_h_e_n _y_o_u _w_a_n_t _t_o _u_s_e _t_h_e _d_i_s_k _f_o_r _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._7 _B_a_d _b_l_o_c_k _h_a_n_d_l_i_n_g The preceding section leaves us with a problem. The controller's bad block han dling is not usable and still FreeBSD's filesystems assume perfect media with out any flaws. To solve this problem, FreeBSD use the _b_a_d_1_4_4 tool. Bad144 (named after a Digital Equipment standard for bad block handling) scans a FreeBSD Handbook 232 FreeBSD slice for bad blocks. Having found these bad blocks, it writes a table with the offending block numbers to the end of the FreeBSD slice. When the disk is in operation, the disk accesses are checked against the table read from the disk. Whenever a block number is requested that is in the bad144 list, a replacement block (also from the end of the FreeBSD slice) is used. In this way, the bad144 replacement scheme presents 'perfect' media to the FreeBSD filesystems. There are a number of potential pitfalls associated with the use of bad144. First of all, the slice cannot have more than 126 bad sectors. If your drive has a high number of bad sectors, you might need to divide it into multiple FreeBSD slices each containing less than 126 bad sectors. Stay away from low- level format programs that mark _e_v_e_r_y sector of a track as bad when they find a flaw on the track. As you can imagine, the 126 limit is quickly reached when the low-level format is done this way. Second, if the slice contains the root filesystem, the slice should be within the 1024 cylinder BIOS limit. During the boot process the bad144 list is read using the BIOS and this only succeeds when the list is within the 1024 cylinder limit. _N_o_t_e that the restriction is not that only the root _f_i_l_e_s_y_s_t_e_m must be within the 1024 cylinder limit, but rather the entire _s_l_i_c_e that contains the root filesystem. _1_2_._5_._1_._2_._8 _K_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n ESDI disks are handled by the same _w_ddriver as IDE and ST412 MFM disks. The _w_d driver should work for all WD1003 compatible interfaces. Most hardware is jumperable for one of two different I/O address ranges and IRQ lines. This allows you to have two wd type controllers in one system. When your hardware allows non-standard strappings, you can use these with FreeBSD as long as you enter the correct info into the kernel config file. An example from the kernel config file (they live in /sys/i386/conf BTW). # First WD compatible controller controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0 disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # Second WD compatible controller controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 0 disk wd3 at wdc1 drive 1 _1_2_._5_._1_._3 _P_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r_s _o_n _E_S_D_I _h_a_r_d_w_a_r_e _1_2_._5_._1_._3_._1 _A_d_a_p_t_e_c _2_3_2_0 _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a ACB-2320. No other operating system was present on the disk. To do so I low level formatted the disk using NEFMT.EXE (_f_t_pable from FreeBSD Handbook 233 _w_w_w_._a_d_a_p_t_e_c_._c_o_m) and answered NO to the question whether the disk should be formatted with a spare sector on each track. The BIOS on the ACD-2320 was dis abled. I used the 'free configurable' option in the system BIOS to allow the BIOS to boot it. Before using NEFMT.EXE I tried to format the disk using the ACB-2320 BIOS builtin formatter. This proved to be a show stopper, because it did not give me an option to disable spare sectoring. With spare sectoring enabled the FreeBSD installation process broke down on the bad144 run. Please check carefully which ACB-232xy variant you have. The x is either 0 or 2, indicating a controller without or with a floppy controller on board. The y is more interesting. It can either be a blank, a "A-8" or a "D". A blank indicates a plain 10 Mbits/second controller. An "A-8" indicates a 15 Mbits/second controller capable of handling 52 sectors/track. A "D" means a 15 Mbits/second controller that can also handle drives with > 36 sectors/track (also 52 ?). All variations should be capable of using 1:1 interleaving. Use 1:1, FreeBSD is fast enough to handle it. _1_2_._5_._1_._3_._2 _W_e_s_t_e_r_n _D_i_g_i_t_a_l _W_D_1_0_0_7 _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a WD1007 con troller. To be precise, it was a WD1007-WA2. Other variations of the WD1007 do exist. To get it to work, I had to disable the sector translation and the WD1007's onboard BIOS. This implied I could not use the low-level formatter built into this BIOS. Instead, I grabbed WDFMT.EXE from www.wdc.com Running this formatted my drive just fine. _1_2_._5_._1_._3_._3 _U_l_t_r_a_s_t_o_r _U_1_4_F _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s According to multiple reports from the net, Ultrastor ESDI boards work OK with FreeBSD. I lack any further info on particular settings. _1_2_._5_._1_._4 _F_u_r_t_h_e_r _r_e_a_d_i_n_g If you intend to do some serious ESDI hacking, you might want to have the offi cial standard at hand: The latest ANSI X3T10 committee document is: Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] [X3T10/792D Rev 11] On Usenet the newsgroup comp.periphs is a noteworthy place to look for more info. The World Wide Web (WWW) also proves to be a very handy info source: For info on Adaptec ESDI controllers see . For info on Western Digital controllers see . FreeBSD Handbook 234 _1_2_._5_._1_._5 _T_h_a_n_k_s _t_o_._._. " Andrew Gordon for sending me an Adaptec 2320 controller and ESDI disk for test ing. _1_2_._5_._2 _W_h_a_t _i_s _S_C_S_I_? _C_o_p_y_r_i_g_h_t __1_9_9_5_, _W_i_l_k_o _B_u_l_t_e . July 6, 1996. SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is an ANSI stan dard that has become one of the leading I/O buses in the computer industry. The foundation of the SCSI standard was laid by Shugart Associates (the same guys that gave the world the first mini floppy disks) when they introduced the SASI bus (Shugart Associates Standard Interface). After some time an industry effort was started to come to a more strict stan dard allowing devices from different vendors to work together. This effort was recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1 standard. The SCSI-1 standard (approx 1985) is rapidly becoming obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2 (see _F_u_r_t_h_e_r _r_e_a_d_i_n_g (section 12.5.2.5, page 248)), with SCSI-3 on the drawing boards. In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI defines a logical (command set) standard to which disk devices must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command Set (CCS) and was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1. SCSI-2 includes the (revised) CCS as part of the standard itself. The commands are dependent on the type of device at hand. It does not make much sense of course to define a Write command for a scanner. The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of variants. The old est and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires. (If you do not know what single-ended means, do not worry, that is what this document is all about.) Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with differential signals. This allows transfer speeds of 20Mbytes/second, on cables lengths of up to 25 meters. SCSI-2 allows a maximum bus width of 32 bits, using an additional cable. Quickly emerging are Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) and Ultra2 (also called Fast-40). Fast-20 is 20 million transfers per second (20 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus), Fast-40 is 40 million transfers per sec ond (40 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus). Most hard drives sold today are single- ended Ultra SCSI (8 or 16 bits). Of course the SCSI bus not only has data lines, but also a number of control signals. A very elaborate protocol is part of the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus in an efficient manner. In SCSI-2, the data is always checked using a separate parity line. In pre-SCSI-2 designs parity was optional. In SCSI-3 even faster bus types are introduced, along with a serial SCSI busses that reduces the cabling overhead and allows a higher maximum bus length. You might see names like SSA and Fiberchannel in this context. None of the serial buses are currently in widespread use (especially not in the typical FreeBSD environment). For this reason the serial bus types are not discussed any FreeBSD Handbook 235 further. As you could have guessed from the description above, SCSI devices are intelli gent. They have to be to adhere to the SCSI standard (which is over 2 inches thick BTW). So, for a hard disk drive for instance you do not specify a head/cylinder/sector to address a particular block, but simply the number of the block you want. Elaborate caching schemes, automatic bad block replacement etc are all made possible by this 'intelligent device' approach. On a SCSI bus, each possible pair of devices can communicate. Whether their function allows this is another matter, but the standard does not restrict it. To avoid signal contention, the 2 devices have to arbitrate for the bus before using it. The philosophy of SCSI is to have a standard that allows older-standard devices to work with newer-standard ones. So, an old SCSI-1 device should normally work on a SCSI-2 bus. I say Normally, because it is not absolutely sure that the implementation of an old device follows the (old) standard closely enough to be acceptable on a new bus. Modern devices are usually more well-behaved, because the standardization has become more strict and is better adhered to by the device manufacturers. Generally speaking, the chances of getting a working set of devices on a single bus is better when all the devices are SCSI-2 or newer. This implies that you do not have to dump all your old stuff when you get that shiny 2GB disk: I own a system on which a pre-SCSI-1 disk, a SCSI-2 QIC tape unit, a SCSI-1 helical scan tape unit and 2 SCSI-1 disks work together quite happily. From a perfor mance standpoint you might want to separate your older and newer (=faster) devices however. _1_2_._5_._2_._1 _C_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t_s _o_f _S_C_S_I As said before, SCSI devices are smart. The idea is to put the knowledge about intimate hardware details onto the SCSI device itself. In this way, the host system does not have to worry about things like how many heads are hard disks has, or how many tracks there are on a specific tape device. If you are curi ous, the standard specifies commands with which you can query your devices on their hardware particulars. FreeBSD uses this capability during boot to check out what devices are connected and whether they need any special treatment. The advantage of intelligent devices is obvious: the device drivers on the host can be made in a much more generic fashion, there is no longer a need to change (and qualify!) drivers for every odd new device that is introduced. For cabling and connectors there is a golden rule: get good stuff. With bus speeds going up all the time you will save yourself a lot of grief by using good material. So, gold plated connectors, shielded cabling, sturdy connector hoods with strain reliefs etc are the way to go. Second golden rule: do no use cables longer than necessary. I once spent 3 days hunting down a problem with a flaky machine only to discover that shortening the SCSI bus by 1 meter solved the problem. And the original bus length was well within the SCSI specification. FreeBSD Handbook 236 _1_2_._5_._2_._2 _S_C_S_I _b_u_s _t_y_p_e_s From an electrical point of view, there are two incompatible bus types: single- ended and differential. This means that there are two different main groups of SCSI devices and controllers, which cannot be mixed on the same bus. It is possible however to use special converter hardware to transform a single-ended bus into a differential one (and vice versa). The differences between the bus types are explained in the next sections. In lots of SCSI related documentation there is a sort of jargon in use to abbreviate the different bus types. A small list: FWD: Fast Wide Differential FND: Fast Narrow Differential SE: Single Ended FN: Fast Narrow etc. With a minor amount of imagination one can usually imagine what is meant. Wide is a bit ambiguous, it can indicate 16 or 32 bit buses. As far as I know, the 32 bit variant is not (yet) in use, so wide normally means 16 bit. Fast means that the timing on the bus is somewhat different, so that on a nar row (8 bit) bus 10 Mbytes/sec are possible instead of 5 Mbytes/sec for 'slow' SCSI. As discussed before, bus speeds of 20 and 40 million transfers/second are also emerging (Fast-20 == Ultra SCSI and Fast-40 == Ultra2 SCSI). It should be noted that the data lines > 8 are only used for data transfers and device addressing. The transfers of commands and status messages etc are only performed on the lowest 8 data lines. The standard allows narrow devices to operate on a wide bus. The usable bus width is negotiated between the devices. You have to watch your device addressing closely when mixing wide and narrow. _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._1 _S_i_n_g_l_e _e_n_d_e_d _b_u_s_e_s A single-ended SCSI bus uses signals that are either 5 Volts or 0 Volts (indeed, TTL levels) and are relative to a COMMON ground reference. A singled ended 8 bit SCSI bus has approximately 25 ground lines, who are all tied to a single `rail' on all devices. A standard single ended bus has a maximum length of 6 meters. If the same bus is used with fast-SCSI devices, the maximum length allowed drops to 3 meters. Fast-SCSI means that instead of 5Mbytes/sec the bus allows 10Mbytes/sec transfers. Fast-20 (Ultra SCSI) and Fast-40 allow for 20 and 40 million transfers/second respectively. So, F20 is 20 Mbytes/second on a 8 bit bus, 40 Mbytes/second on a 16 bit bus etc. For F20 the max bus length is 1.5 meters, for F40 it becomes 0.75 meters. Be aware that F20 is pushing the limits quite a bit, so you will quickly find out if your SCSI bus is electrically sound. FreeBSD Handbook 237 Please note that this means that if some devices on your bus use 'fast' to com municate your bus must adhere to the length restrictions for fast buses! It is obvious that with the newer fast-SCSI devices the bus length can become a real bottleneck. This is why the differential SCSI bus was introduced in the SCSI-2 standard. For connector pinning and connector types please refer to the SCSI-2 standard (see _F_u_r_t_h_e_r _r_e_a_d_i_n_g (section 12.5.2.5, page 248)) itself, connec tors etc are listed there in painstaking detail. Beware of devices using non-standard cabling. For instance Apple uses a 25pin D-type connecter (like the one on serial ports and parallel printers). Consid ering that the official SCSI bus needs 50 pins you can imagine the use of this connector needs some 'creative cabling'. The reduction of the number of ground wires they used is a bad idea, you better stick to 50 pins cabling in accor dance with the SCSI standard. For Fast-20 and 40 do not even think about buses like this. _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._2 _D_i_f_f_e_r_e_n_t_i_a_l _b_u_s_e_s A differential SCSI bus has a maximum length of 25 meters. Quite a difference from the 3 meters for a single-ended fast-SCSI bus. The idea behind differen tial signals is that each bus signal has its own return wire. So, each signal is carried on a (preferably twisted) pair of wires. The voltage difference between these two wires determines whether the signal is asserted or de- asserted. To a certain extent the voltage difference between ground and the signal wire pair is not relevant (do not try 10 kVolts though). It is beyond the scope of this document to explain why this differential idea is so much better. Just accept that electrically seen the use of differential signals gives a much better noise margin. You will normally find differential buses in use for inter-cabinet connections. Because of the lower cost single ended is mostly used for shorter buses like inside cabinets. There is nothing that stops you from using differential stuff with FreeBSD, as long as you use a controller that has device driver support in FreeBSD. As an example, Adaptec marketed the AHA1740 as a single ended board, whereas the AHA1744 was differential. The software interface to the host is identical for both. _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._3 _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_t_o_r_s Terminators in SCSI terminology are resistor networks that are used to get a correct impedance matching. Impedance matching is important to get clean sig nals on the bus, without reflections or ringing. If you once made a long dis tance telephone call on a bad line you probably know what reflections are. With 20Mbytes/sec traveling over your SCSI bus, you do not want signals echoing back. Terminators come in various incarnations, with more or less sophisticated designs. Of course, there are internal and external variants. Many SCSI devices come with a number of sockets in which a number of resistor networks can (must be!) installed. If you remove terminators from a device, carefully FreeBSD Handbook 238 store them. You will need them when you ever decide to reconfigure your SCSI bus. There is enough variation in even these simple tiny things to make find ing the exact replacement a frustrating business. There are also SCSI devices that have a single jumper to enable or disable a built-in terminator. There are special terminators you can stick onto a flat cable bus. Others look like external connectors, or a connector hood without a cable. So, lots of choice as you can see. There is much debate going on if and when you should switch from simple resis tor (passive) terminators to active terminators. Active terminators contain slightly more elaborate circuit to give cleaner bus signals. The general con sensus seems to be that the usefulness of active termination increases when you have long buses and/or fast devices. If you ever have problems with your SCSI buses you might consider trying an active terminator. Try to borrow one first, they reputedly are quite expensive. Please keep in mind that terminators for differential and single-ended buses are not identical. You should nnoott mmiixx the two variants. OK, and now where should you install your terminators? This is by far the most misunderstood part of SCSI. And it is by far the simplest. The rule is: eevveerryy ssiinnggllee lliinnee oonn tthhee SSCCSSII bbuuss hhaass 22 ((ttwwoo)) tteerrmmiinnaattoorrss,, oonnee aatt eeaacchh eenndd ooff tthhee bbuuss.. So, two and not one or three or whatever. Do yourself a favor and stick to this rule. It will save you endless grief, because wrong termination has the potential to introduce highly mysterious bugs. (Note the "potential" here; the nastiest part is that it may or may not work.) A common pitfall is to have an internal (flat) cable in a machine and also an external cable attached to the controller. It seems almost everybody forgets to remove the terminators from the controller. The terminator must now be on the last external device, and not on the controller! In general, every reconfigura tion of a SCSI bus must pay attention to this. Note that termination is to be done on a per-line basis. This means if you have both narrow and wide buses connected to the same host adapter, you need to enable termination on the higher 8 bits of the bus on the adapter (as well as the last devices on each bus, of course). What I did myself is remove all terminators from my SCSI devices and con trollers. I own a couple of external terminators, for both the Centronics-type external cabling and for the internal flat cable connectors. This makes recon figuration much easier. On modern devices, sometimes integrated terminators are used. These things are special purpose integrated circuits that can be dis/en-abled with a control pin. It is not necessary to physically remove them from a device. You may find them on newer host adapters, sometimes they are software configurable, using some sort of setup tool. Some will even auto-detect the cables attached to the connectors and automatically set up the termination as necessary. At any rate, consult your documentation! _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._4 _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_t_o_r _p_o_w_e_r The terminators discussed in the previous chapter need power to operate FreeBSD Handbook 239 properly. On the SCSI bus, a line is dedicated to this purpose. So, simple huh? Not so. Each device can provide its own terminator power to the terminator sockets it has on-device. But if you have external terminators, or when the device supplying the terminator power to the SCSI bus line is switched off you are in trouble. The idea is that initiators (these are devices that initiate actions on the bus, a discussion follows) must supply terminator power. All SCSI devices are allowed (but not required) to supply terminator power. To allow for un-powered devices on a bus, the terminator power must be supplied to the bus via a diode. This prevents the backflow of current to un-powered devices. To prevent all kinds of nastiness, the terminator power is usually fused. As you can imagine, fuses might blow. This can, but does not have to, lead to a non functional bus. If multiple devices supply terminator power, a single blown fuse will not put you out of business. A single supplier with a blown fuse cer tainly will. Clever external terminators sometimes have a LED indication that shows whether terminator power is present. In newer designs auto-restoring fuses that 'reset' themselves after some time are sometimes used. _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._5 _D_e_v_i_c_e _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_i_n_g Because the SCSI bus is, ehh, a bus there must be a way to distinguish or address the different devices connected to it. This is done by means of the SCSI or target ID. Each device has a unique target ID. You can select the ID to which a device must respond using a set of jumpers, or a dip switch, or something similar. Some SCSI host adapters let you change the target ID from the boot menu. (Yet some others will not let you change the ID from 7.) Consult the documentation of your device for more information. Beware of multiple devices configured to use the same ID. Chaos normally reigns in this case. A pitfall is that one of the devices sharing the same ID some times even manages to answer to I/O requests! For an 8 bit bus, a maximum of 8 targets is possible. The maximum is 8 because the selection is done bitwise using the 8 data lines on the bus. For wide buses this increases to the number of data lines (usually 16). Note that a narrow SCSI device can not communicate with a SCSI device with a target ID larger than 7. This means it is generally not a good idea to move your SCSI host adapter's target ID to something higher than 7 (or your CD-ROM will stop working). The higher the SCSI target ID, the higher the priority the devices has. When it comes to arbitration between devices that want to use the bus at the same time, the device that has the highest SCSI ID will win. This also means that FreeBSD Handbook 240 the SCSI host adapter usually uses target ID 7. Note however that the lower 8 IDs have higher priorities than the higher 8 IDs on a wide-SCSI bus. Thus, the order of target IDs is: [7 6 .. 1 0 15 14 .. 9 8] on a wide-SCSI system. (If you you are wondering why the lower 8 have higher priority, read the previous paragraph for a hint.) For a further subdivision, the standard allows for Logical Units or LUNs for short. A single target ID may have multiple LUNs. For example, a tape device including a tape changer may have LUN 0 for the tape device itself, and LUN 1 for the tape changer. In this way, the host system can address each of the functional units of the tape changer as desired. _1_2_._5_._2_._2_._6 _B_u_s _l_a_y_o_u_t SCSI buses are linear. So, not shaped like Y-junctions, star topologies, rings, cobwebs or whatever else people might want to invent. One of the most common mistakes is for people with wide-SCSI host adapters to connect devices on all three connecters (external connector, internal wide connector, internal narrow connector). Don't do that. It may appear to work if you are really lucky, but I can almost guarantee that your system will stop functioning at the most unfortunate moment (this is also known as "Murphy's law"). You might notice that the terminator issue discussed earlier becomes rather hairy if your bus is not linear. Also, if you have more connectors than devices on your internal SCSI cable, make sure you attach devices on connectors on both ends instead of using the connectors in the middle and let one or both ends dangle. This will screw up the termination of the bus. The electrical characteristics, its noise margins and ultimately the reliabil ity of it all are tightly related to linear bus rule. SSttiicckk ttoo tthhee lliinneeaarr bbuuss rruullee!! _1_2_._5_._2_._3 _U_s_i_n_g _S_C_S_I _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._1 _A_b_o_u_t _t_r_a_n_s_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_, _B_I_O_S_e_s _a_n_d _m_a_g_i_c_._._. As stated before, you should first make sure that you have a electrically sound bus. When you want to use a SCSI disk on your PC as boot disk, you must aware of some quirks related to PC BIOSes. The PC BIOS in its first incarnation used a low level physical interface to the hard disk. So, you had to tell the BIOS (using a setup tool or a BIOS built-in setup) how your disk physically looked like. This involved stating number of heads, number of cylinders, number of sectors per track, obscure things like precompensation and reduced write cur rent cylinder etc. One might be inclined to think that since SCSI disks are smart you can forget about this. Alas, the arcane setup issue is still present today. The system BIOS needs to know how to access your SCSI disk with the head/cyl/sector method in order to load the FreeBSD kernel during boot. The SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller you have put in your FreeBSD Handbook 241 AT/EISA/PCI/whatever bus to connect your disk therefore has its own on-board BIOS. During system startup, the SCSI BIOS takes over the hard disk interface routines from the system BIOS. To fool the system BIOS, the system setup is normally set to No hard disk present. Obvious, isn't it? The SCSI BIOS itself presents to the system a so called ttrraannssllaatteedd drive. This means that a fake drive table is constructed that allows the PC to boot the drive. This translation is often (but not always) done using a pseudo drive with 64 heads and 32 sectors per track. By varying the number of cylinders, the SCSI BIOS adapts to the actual drive size. It is useful to note that 32 * 64 / 2 = the size of your drive in megabytes. The division by 2 is to get from disk blocks that are normally 512 bytes in size to Kbytes. Right. All is well now?! No, it is not. The system BIOS has another quirk you might run into. The number of cylinders of a bootable hard disk cannot be greater than 1024. Using the translation above, this is a show-stopper for disks greater than 1 GB. With disk capacities going up all the time this is causing problems. Fortunately, the solution is simple: just use another translation, e.g. with 128 heads instead of 32. In most cases new SCSI BIOS versions are available to upgrade older SCSI host adapters. Some newer adapters have an option, in the form of a jumper or software setup selection, to switch the translation the SCSI BIOS uses. It is very important that aallll operating systems on the disk use the ssaammee ttrraannss llaattiioonn to get the right idea about where to find the relevant partitions. So, when installing FreeBSD you must answer any questions about heads/cylinders etc using the translated values your host adapter uses. Failing to observe the translation issue might lead to un-bootable systems or operating systems overwriting each others partitions. Using fdisk you should be able to see all partitions. You might have heard some talk of 'lying' devices? Older FreeBSD kernels used to report the geometry of SCSI disks when booting. An example from one of my systems: aha0 targ 0 lun 0: sd0: 636MB (1303250 total sec), 1632 cyl, 15 head, 53 sec, bytes/sec 512 Newer kernels usually do not report this information. e.g. (bt0:0:0): "SEAGATE ST41651 7574" type 0 fixed SCSI 2 sd0(bt0:0:0): Direct-Access 1350MB (2766300 512 byte sectors) Why has this changed? This info is retrieved from the SCSI disk itself. Newer disks often use a tech nique called zone bit recording. The idea is that on the outer cylinders of the drive there is more space so more sectors per track can be put on them. This FreeBSD Handbook 242 results in disks that have more tracks on outer cylinders than on the inner cylinders and, last but not least, have more capacity. You can imagine that the value reported by the drive when inquiring about the geometry now becomes sus pect at best, and nearly always misleading. When asked for a geometry , it is nearly always better to supply the geometry used by the BIOS, or _i_f _t_h_e _B_I_O_S _i_s _n_e_v_e_r _g_o_i_n_g _t_o _k_n_o_w _a_b_o_u_t _t_h_i_s _d_i_s_k, (e.g. it is not a booting disk) to supply a fictitious geometry that is convenient. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._2 _S_C_S_I _s_u_b_s_y_s_t_e_m _d_e_s_i_g_n FreeBSD uses a layered SCSI subsystem. For each different controller card a device driver is written. This driver knows all the intimate details about the hardware it controls. The driver has a interface to the upper layers of the SCSI subsystem through which it receives its commands and reports back any sta tus. On top of the card drivers there are a number of more generic drivers for a class of devices. More specific: a driver for tape devices (abbreviation: st), magnetic disks (sd), CD-ROMs (cd) etc. In case you are wondering where you can find this stuff, it all lives in /sys/scsi. See the man pages in section 4 for more details. The multi level design allows a decoupling of low-level bit banging and more high level stuff. Adding support for another piece of hardware is a much more manageable problem. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._3 _K_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n Dependent on your hardware, the kernel configuration file must contain one or more lines describing your host adapter(s). This includes I/O addresses, interrupts etc. Consult the man page for your adapter driver to get more info. Apart from that, check out /sys/i386/conf/LINT for an overview of a kernel con fig file. LINT contains every possible option you can dream of. It does _n_o_t imply LINT will actually get you to a working kernel at all. Although it is probably stating the obvious: the kernel config file should reflect your actual hardware setup. So, interrupts, I/O addresses etc must match the kernel config file. During system boot messages will be displayed to indicate whether the configured hardware was actually found. Note that most of the EISA/PCI drivers (namely ahb, ahc, ncr and amd will automatically obtain the correct parameters from the host adapters themselves at boot time; thus, you just need to write, for instance, "controller ahc0". An example loosely based on the FreeBSD 2.2.5-Release kernel config file LINT with some added comments (between []): FreeBSD Handbook 243 # SCSI host adapters: `aha', `ahb', `aic', `bt', `nca' # # aha: Adaptec 154x # ahb: Adaptec 174x # ahc: Adaptec 274x/284x/294x # aic: Adaptec 152x and sound cards using the Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) # amd: AMD 53c974 based SCSI cards (e.g., Tekram DC-390 and 390T) # bt: Most Buslogic controllers # nca: ProAudioSpectrum cards using the NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 # ncr: NCR/Symbios 53c810/815/825/875 etc based SCSI cards # uha: UltraStore 14F and 34F # sea: Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) # wds: Western Digital WD7000 controller (no scatter/gather!). # [For an Adaptec AHA274x/284x/294x/394x etc controller] controller ahc0 [For an NCR/Symbios 53c875 based controller] controller ncr0 [For an Ultrastor adapter] controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr # Map SCSI buses to specific SCSI adapters controller scbus0 at ahc0 controller scbus2 at ncr0 controller scbus1 at uha0 # The actual SCSI devices disk sd0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 [SCSI disk 0 is at scbus 0, LUN 0] disk sd1 at scbus0 target 1 [implicit LUN 0 if omitted] disk sd2 at scbus1 target 3 [SCSI disk on the uha0] disk sd3 at scbus2 target 4 [SCSI disk on the ncr0] tape st1 at scbus0 target 6 [SCSI tape at target 6] device cd0 at scbus? [the first ever CD-ROM found, no wiring] The example above tells the kernel to look for a ahc (Adaptec 274x) controller, then for an NCR/Symbios board, and so on. The lines following the controller specifications tell the kernel to configure specific devices but _o_n_l_y attach them when they match the target ID and LUN specified on the corresponding bus. Wired down devices get 'first shot' at the unit numbers so the first non 'wired down' device, is allocated the unit number one greater than the highest 'wired down' unit number for that kind of device. So, if you had a SCSI tape at tar get ID 2 it would be configured as st2, as the tape at target ID 6 is wired down to unit number 1. Note that _w_i_r_e_d _d_o_w_n _d_e_v_i_c_e_s _n_e_e_d _n_o_t _b_e _f_o_u_n_d to get their unit number. The unit number for a wired down device is reserved for that device, even if it is turned off at boot time. This allows the device to be turned on and brought on-line at a later time, without rebooting. Notice that a device's unit number has _n_o relationship with its target ID on the SCSI bus. FreeBSD Handbook 244 Below is another example of a kernel config file as used by FreeBSD version < 2.0.5. The difference with the first example is that devices are not 'wired down'. 'Wired down' means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to which device. A kernel built to the config file below will attach the first SCSI disk it finds to sd0, the second disk to sd1 etc. If you ever removed or added a disk, all other devices of the same type (disk in this case) would 'move around'. This implies you have to change /etc/fstab each time. Although the old style still works, you are _s_t_r_o_n_g_l_y recommended to use this new feature. It will save you a lot of grief whenever you shift your hardware around on the SCSI buses. So, when you re-use your old trusty config file after upgrading from a pre-FreeBSD2.0.5.R system check this out. [driver for Adaptec 174x] controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq 11 vector ahbintr [for Adaptec 154x] controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq 11 drq 5 vector ahaintr [for Seagate ST01/02] controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr controller scbus0 device sd0 [support for 4 SCSI harddisks, sd0 up sd3] device st0 [support for 2 SCSI tapes] [for the CD-ROM] device cd0 #Only need one of these, the code dynamically grows Both examples support SCSI disks. If during boot more devices of a specific type (e.g. sd disks) are found than are configured in the booting kernel, the system will simply allocate more devices, incrementing the unit number starting at the last number 'wired down'. If there are no 'wired down' devices then counting starts at unit 0. Use man 4 scsi to check for the latest info on the SCSI subsystem. For more detailed info on host adapter drivers use eg man 4 ahc for info on the Adaptec 294x driver. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._4 _T_u_n_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _S_C_S_I _k_e_r_n_e_l _s_e_t_u_p Experience has shown that some devices are slow to respond to INQUIRY commands after a SCSI bus reset (which happens at boot time). An INQUIRY command is sent by the kernel on boot to see what kind of device (disk, tape, CD-ROM etc) is connected to a specific target ID. This process is called device probing by the way. To work around the 'slow response' problem, FreeBSD allows a tunable delay time before the SCSI devices are probed following a SCSI bus reset. You can set this delay time in your kernel configuration file using a line like: FreeBSD Handbook 245 options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device This line sets the delay time to 15 seconds. On my own system I had to use 3 seconds minimum to get my trusty old CD-ROM drive to be recognized. Start with a high value (say 30 seconds or so) when you have problems with device recogni tion. If this helps, tune it back until it just stays working. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._5 _R_o_g_u_e _S_C_S_I _d_e_v_i_c_e_s " Although the SCSI standard tries to be complete and concise, it is a complex standard and implementing things correctly is no easy task. Some vendors do a better job then others. This is exactly where the 'rogue' devices come into view. Rogues are devices that are recognized by the FreeBSD kernel as behaving slightly (...) non-stan dard. Rogue devices are reported by the kernel when booting. An example for two of my cartridge tape units: Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: ahb0 targ 5 lun 0: Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: st0: Tandberg tdc3600 is a known rogue Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: aha0 targ 5 lun 0: Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: st1: Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue For instance, there are devices that respond to all LUNs on a certain target ID, even if they are actually only one device. It is easy to see that the ker nel might be fooled into believing that there are 8 LUNs at that particular target ID. The confusion this causes is left as an exercise to the reader. The SCSI subsystem of FreeBSD recognizes devices with bad habits by looking at the INQUIRY response they send when probed. Because the INQUIRY response also includes the version number of the device firmware, it is even possible that for different firmware versions different workarounds are used. See e.g. /sys/scsi/st.c and /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c for more info on how this is done. This scheme works fine, but keep in mind that it of course only works for devices that are KNOWN to be weird. If you are the first to connect your bogus Mumbletech SCSI CD-ROM you might be the one that has to define which workaround is needed. After you got your Mumbletech working, please send the required workaround to the FreeBSD development team for inclusion in the next release of FreeBSD. Other Mumbletech owners will be grateful to you. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._6 _M_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _L_U_N _d_e_v_i_c_e_s In some cases you come across devices that use multiple logical units (LUNs) on FreeBSD Handbook 246 a single SCSI ID. In most cases FreeBSD only probes devices for LUN 0. An exam ple are so called bridge boards that connect 2 non-SCSI harddisks to a SCSI bus (e.g. an Emulex MD21 found in old Sun systems). This means that any devices with LUNs != 0 are not normally found during device probe on system boot. To work around this problem you must add an appropriate entry in /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c and rebuild your kernel. Look for a struct that is initialized like below: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MAXTOR", "XT-4170S", "B5A", "mx1", SC_ONE_LU } For you Mumbletech BRIDGE2000 that has more than one LUN, acts as a SCSI disk and has firmware revision 123 you would add something like: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MUMBLETECH", "BRIDGE2000", "123", "sd", SC_MORE_LUS } The kernel on boot scans the inquiry data it receives against the table and acts accordingly. See the source for more info. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._7 _T_a_g_g_e_d _c_o_m_m_a_n_d _q_u_e_u_e_i_n_g Modern SCSI devices, particularly magnetic disks, support what is called tagged command queuing (TCQ). In a nutshell, TCQ allows the device to have multiple I/O requests outstanding at the same time. Because the device is intelligent, it can optimise its opera tions (like head positioning) based on its own request queue. On SCSI devices like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) arrays the TCQ function is indispensable to take advantage of the device's inherent parallelism. Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a 'tag' (hence the name tagged com mand queuing) and this tag is used by FreeBSD to see which I/O in the device drivers queue is reported as complete by the device. It should be noted however that TCQ requires device driver support and that some devices implemented it 'not quite right' in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it leads to highly mysterious problems. In such cases, try to disable TCQ. _1_2_._5_._2_._3_._8 _B_u_s_m_a_s_t_e_r _h_o_s_t _a_d_a_p_t_e_r_s Most, but not all, SCSI host adapters are bus mastering controllers. This means that they can do I/O on their own without putting load onto the host CPU for data movement. FreeBSD Handbook 247 This is of course an advantage for a multitasking operating system like FreeBSD. It must be noted however that there might be some rough edges. For instance an Adaptec 1542 controller can be set to use different transfer speeds on the host bus (ISA or AT in this case). The controller is settable to different rates because not all motherboards can handle the higher speeds. Problems like hangups, bad data etc might be the result of using a higher data transfer rate then your motherboard can stomach. The solution is of course obvious: switch to a lower data transfer rate and try if that works better. In the case of a Adaptec 1542, there is an option that can be put into the ker nel config file to allow dynamic determination of the right, read: fastest fea sible, transfer rate. This option is disabled by default: options "TUNE_1542" #dynamic tune of bus DMA speed Check the man pages for the host adapter that you use. Or better still, use the ultimate documentation (read: driver source). _1_2_._5_._2_._4 _T_r_a_c_k_i_n_g _d_o_w_n _p_r_o_b_l_e_m_s The following list is an attempt to give a guideline for the most common SCSI problems and their solutions. It is by no means complete. Check for loose connectors and cables. Check and double check the location and number of your terminators. Check if your bus has at least one supplier of terminator power (espe cially with external terminators. Check if no double target IDs are used. Check if all devices to be used are powered up. Make a minimal bus config with as little devices as possible. If possible, configure your host adapter to use slow bus speeds. Disable tagged command queuing to make things as simple as possible (for a NCR hostadapter based system see man ncrcontrol) If you can compile a kernel, make one with the SCSIDEBUG option, and try accessing the device with debugging turned on for that device. If your device does not even probe at startup, you may have to define the address of the device that is failing, and the desired debug level in /sys/scsi/scsidebug.h. If it probes but just does not work, you can use the scsi(8) command to dynamically set a debug level to it in a running kernel (if SCSIDEBUG is defined). This will give you COPIOUS debugging output with which to confuse the gurus. see man 4 scsi for more exact information. Also look at man 8 scsi. FreeBSD Handbook 248 _1_2_._5_._2_._5 _F_u_r_t_h_e_r _r_e_a_d_i_n_g If you intend to do some serious SCSI hacking, you might want to have the offi cial standard at hand: Approved American National Standards can be purchased from ANSI at 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, Sales Dept: (212) 642-4900. You can also buy many ANSI standards and most committee draft documents from Global Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO 80112-5704, Phone: (800) 854-7179, Outside USA and Canada: (303) 792-2181, FAX: (303) 792- 2192. Many X3T10 draft documents are available electronically on the SCSI BBS (719-574-0424) and on the ncrinfo.ncr.com anonymous ftp site. Latest X3T10 committee documents are: AT Attachment (ATA or IDE) [X3.221-1994] (_A_p_p_r_o_v_e_d) ATA Extensions (ATA-2) [X3T10/948D Rev 2i] Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] (_A_p_p_r_o_v_e_d) Small Computer System Interface - 2 (SCSI-2) [X3.131-1994] (_A_p_p_r_o_v_e_d) SCSI-2 Common Access Method Transport and SCSI Interface Module (CAM) [X3T10/792D Rev 11] Other publications that might provide you with additional information are: "SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System Interface", written by NCR Corporation. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-796855-8 "Basics of SCSI", a SCSI tutorial written by Ancot Corporation Contact Ancot for availability information at: Phone: (415) 322-5322 Fax: (415) 322-0455 "SCSI Interconnection Guide Book", an AMP publication (dated 4/93, Catalog 65237) that lists the various SCSI connectors and suggests cabling schemes. Available from AMP at (800) 522-6752 or (717) 564-0100 "Fast Track to SCSI", A Product Guide written by Fujitsu. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-307000-X "The SCSI Bench Reference", "The SCSI Encyclopedia", and the "SCSI Tutor", ENDL Publications, 14426 Black Walnut Court, Saratoga CA, 95070 Phone: (408) 867-6642 "Zadian SCSI Navigator" (quick ref. book) and "Discover the Power of SCSI" (First book along with a one-hour video and tutorial book), Zadian Soft ware, Suite 214, 1210 S. Bascom Ave., San Jose, CA 92128, (408) 293-0800 FreeBSD Handbook 249 On Usenet the newsgroups comp.periphs.scsi and comp.periphs are noteworthy places to look for more info. You can also find the SCSI-Faq there, which is posted periodically. Most major SCSI device and host adapter suppliers operate ftp sites and/or BBS systems. They may be valuable sources of information about the devices you own. _1_2_._5_._3 _* _D_i_s_k_/_t_a_p_e _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s " _1_2_._5_._3_._1 _* _S_C_S_I _1_2_._5_._3_._2 _* _I_D_E _1_2_._5_._3_._3 _* _F_l_o_p_p_y _1_2_._5_._4 _H_a_r_d _d_r_i_v_e_s _1_2_._5_._4_._1 _S_C_S_I _h_a_r_d _d_r_i_v_e_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i . 17 February 1998. As mentioned in the _S_C_S_I (section 12.5.2, page 234) section, virtually all SCSI hard drives sold today are SCSI-2 compliant and thus will work fine as long as you connect them to a supported SCSI host adapter. Most problems people encounter are either due to badly designed cabling (cable too long, star topol ogy, etc.), insufficient termination, or defective parts. Please refer to the _S_C_S_I (section 12.5.2, page 234) section first if your SCSI hard drive is not working. However, there are a couple of things you may want to take into account before you purchase SCSI hard drives for your system. _1_2_._5_._4_._1_._1 _R_o_t_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _s_p_e_e_d Rotational speeds of SCSI drives sold today range from around 4,500RPM to 10,000RPM. Most of them are either 5,400RPM or 7,200RPM. Even though the 7,200RPM drives can generally transfer data faster, they run considerably hot ter than their 5,400RPM counterparts. A large fraction of today's disk drive malfunctions are heat-related. If you do not have very good cooling in your PC case, you may want to stick with 5,400RPM or slower drives. Note that newer drives, with higher areal recording densities, can deliver much more bits per rotation than older ones. Today's top-of-line 5,400RPM drives can sustain a throughput comparable to 7,200RPM drives of one or two model gen erations ago. The number to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is "internal data (or transfer) rate". It is usually in megabits/sec so divide it by 8 and you'll get the rough approximation of how much megabytes/sec you can get out of the drive. (If you are a speed maniac and want a 10,000RPM drive for your cute little peecee, be my guest; however, those drives become extremely hot. Don't even think about it if you don't have a fan blowing air _d_i_r_e_c_t_l_y _a_t the drive or a properly ventilated disk enclosure.) FreeBSD Handbook 250 Obviously, the latest 10,000RPM drives and 7,200RPM drives can deliver more data than the latest 5,400RPM drives, so if absolute bandwidth is the necessity for your applications, you have little choice but to get the faster drives. Also, if you need low latency, faster drives are better; not only do they usu ally have lower average seek times, but also the rotational delay is one place where slow-spinning drives can never beat a faster one. (The average rota tional latency is half the time it takes to rotate the drive once; thus, it's 3 milliseconds for 10,000RPM drives, 4.2ms for 7,200RPM drives and 5.6ms for 5,400RPM drives.) Latency is seek time plus rotational delay. Make sure you understand whether you need low latency or more accesses per second, though; in the latter case (e.g., news servers), it may not be optimal to purchase one big fast drive. You can achieve similar or even better results by using the ccd (concatenated disk) driver to create a striped disk array out of multiple slower drives for comparable overall cost. Make sure you have adequate air flow around the drive, especially if you are going to use a fast-spinning drive. You generally need at least 1/2" (1.25cm) of spacing above and below a drive. Understand how the air flows through your PC case. Most cases have the power supply suck the air out of the back. See where the air flows in, and put the drive where it will have the largest volume of cool air flowing around it. You may need to seal some unwanted holes or add a new fan for effective cooling. Another consideration is noise. Many 7,200 or faster drives generate a high- pitched whine which is quite unpleasant to most people. That, plus the extra fans often required for cooling, may make 7,200 or faster drives unsuitable for some office and home environments. _1_2_._5_._4_._1_._2 _F_o_r_m _f_a_c_t_o_r Most SCSI drives sold today are of 3.5" form factor. They come in two differ ent heights; 1.6" ("half-height") or 1" ("low-profile"). The half-height drive is the same height as a CD-ROM drive. However, don't forget the spacing rule mentioned in the previous section. If you have three standard 3.5" drive bays, you will not be able to put three half-height drives in there (without frying them, that is). _1_2_._5_._4_._1_._3 _I_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e The majority of SCSI hard drives sold today are Ultra or Ultra-wide SCSI. The maximum bandwidth of Ultra SCSI is 20MB/sec, and Ultra-wide SCSI is 40MB/sec. There is no difference in max cable length between Ultra and Ultra-wide; how ever, the more devices you have on the same bus, the sooner you will start hav ing bus integrity problems. Unless you have a well-designed disk enclosure, it is not easy to make more than 5 or 6 Ultra SCSI drives work on a single bus. On the other hand, if you need to connect many drives, going for Fast-wide SCSI may not be a bad idea. That will have the same max bandwidth as Ultra (narrow) SCSI, while electronically it's much easier to get it "right". My advice would be: if you want to connect many disks, get wide SCSI drives; they usually cost a little more but it may save you down the road. (Besides, if you can't afford the cost difference, you shouldn't be building a disk array.) There are two variant of wide SCSI drives; 68-pin and 80-pin SCA (Single FreeBSD Handbook 251 Connector Attach). The SCA drives don't have a separate 4-pin power connector, and also read the SCSI ID settings through the 80-pin connector. If you are really serious about building a large storage system, get SCA drives and a good SCA enclosure (dual power supply with at least one extra fan). They are more electronically sound than 68-pin counterparts because there is no "stub" of the SCSI bus inside the disk canister as in arrays built from 68-pin drives. They are easier to install too (you just need to screw the drive in the canister, instead of trying to squeeze in your fingers in a tight place to hook up all the little cables (like the SCSI ID and disk activity LED lines). _1_2_._5_._4_._2 _* _I_D_E _h_a_r_d _d_r_i_v_e_s _1_2_._5_._5 _T_a_p_e _d_r_i_v_e_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_n_a_t_h_a_n _M_. _B_r_e_s_l_e_r . 2 July 1996. _1_2_._5_._5_._1 _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _t_a_p_e _a_c_c_e_s_s _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_s mt(1) provides generic access to the tape drives. Some of the more common com mands are rewind, erase, and status. See the mt(1) manual page for a detailed description. _1_2_._5_._5_._2 _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r _I_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e_s There are several different interfaces that support tape drives. The inter faces are SCSI, IDE, Floppy and Parallel Port. A wide variety of tape drives are available for these interfaces. Controllers are discussed in _D_i_s_k_/_t_a_p_e _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r_s (section 12.5.3, page 249) _1_2_._5_._5_._3 _S_C_S_I _d_r_i_v_e_s The st(4) driver provides support for 8mm (Exabyte), 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape), QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge), DLT (Digital Linear Tape), QIC Minicar tridge and 9-track (remember the big reels that you see spinning in Hollywood computer rooms) tape drives. See the st(4) manual page for a detailed descrip tion. The drives listed below are currently being used by members of the FreeBSD com munity. They are not the only drives that will work with FreeBSD. They just happen to be the ones that we use. _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._1 _4_m_m _(_D_A_T_: _D_i_g_i_t_a_l _A_u_d_i_o _T_a_p_e_) _A_r_c_h_i_v_e _P_y_t_h_o_n (section 12.5.5.7.2, page 253) _H_P _C_1_5_3_3_A (section 12.5.5.7.13, page 258) _H_P _C_1_5_3_4_A (section 12.5.5.7.14, page 259) _H_P _3_5_4_5_0_A (section 12.5.5.7.16, page 260) _H_P _3_5_4_7_0_A (section 12.5.5.7.17, page 261) FreeBSD Handbook 252 _H_P _3_5_4_8_0_A (section 12.5.5.7.18, page 261) _S_D_T_-_5_0_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.19, page 261) _W_a_n_g_t_e_k _6_2_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.24, page 263) _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._2 _8_m_m _(_E_x_a_b_y_t_e_) _E_X_B_-_8_2_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.10, page 257) _E_X_B_-_8_5_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.11, page 257) _E_X_B_-_8_5_0_5 (section 12.5.5.7.12, page 257) _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._3 _Q_I_C _(_Q_u_a_r_t_e_r_-_I_n_c_h _C_a_r_t_r_i_d_g_e_) _A_r_c_h_i_v_e _A_n_a_n_c_o_n_d_a _2_7_5_0 (section 12.5.5.7.1, page 253) _A_r_c_h_i_v_e _V_i_p_e_r _6_0 (section 12.5.5.7.3, page 254) _A_r_c_h_i_v_e _V_i_p_e_r _1_5_0 (section 12.5.5.7.4, page 254) _A_r_c_h_i_v_e _V_i_p_e_r _2_5_2_5 (section 12.5.5.7.5, page 255) _T_a_n_d_b_e_r_g _T_D_C _3_6_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.20, page 262) _T_a_n_d_b_e_r_g _T_D_C _3_6_2_0 (section 12.5.5.7.21, page 262) _T_a_n_d_b_e_r_g _T_D_C _4_2_2_2 (section 12.5.5.7.22, page 263) _W_a_n_g_t_e_k _5_5_2_5_E_S (section 12.5.5.7.23, page 263) _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._4 _D_L_T _(_D_i_g_i_t_a_l _L_i_n_e_a_r _T_a_p_e_) _D_i_g_i_t_a_l _T_Z_8_7 (section 12.5.5.7.8, page 256) _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._5 _M_i_n_i_-_C_a_r_t_r_i_d_g_e _C_o_n_n_e_r _C_T_M_S _3_2_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.7, page 255) _E_x_a_b_y_t_e _2_5_0_1 (section 12.5.5.7.9, page 256) _1_2_._5_._5_._3_._6 _A_u_t_o_l_o_a_d_e_r_s_/_C_h_a_n_g_e_r_s _H_e_w_l_e_t_t_-_P_a_c_k_a_r_d _H_P _C_1_5_5_3_A _A_u_t_o_l_o_a_d_i_n_g _D_D_S_2 (section 12.5.5.7.15, page 259) _1_2_._5_._5_._4 _* _I_D_E _d_r_i_v_e_s _1_2_._5_._5_._5 _F_l_o_p_p_y _d_r_i_v_e_s _C_o_n_n_e_r _4_2_0_R (section 12.5.5.7.6, page 255) FreeBSD Handbook 253 _1_2_._5_._5_._6 _* _P_a_r_a_l_l_e_l _p_o_r_t _d_r_i_v_e_s _1_2_._5_._5_._7 _D_e_t_a_i_l_e_d _I_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_i_o_n _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1 Archive Anaconda 2750" The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE ANCDA 2750 28077 -003 type 1 removable SCSI 2" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 1.35GB when using QIC-1350 tapes. This drive will read and write QIC-150 (DC6150), QIC-250 (DC6250), and QIC-525 (DC6525) tapes as well. Data transfer rate is 350kB/s using dump(8). Rates of 530kB/s have been reported when using _A_m_a_n_d_a (section 9.3.5, page 189) Production of this drive has been discontinued. The SCSI bus connector on this tape drive is reversed from that on most other SCSI devices. Make sure that you have enough SCSI cable to twist the cable one-half turn before and after the Archive Anaconda tape drive, or turn your other SCSI devices upside-down. Two kernel code changes are required to use this drive. This drive will not work as delivered. If you have a SCSI-2 controller, short jumper 6. Otherwise, the drive behaves are a SCSI-1 device. When operating as a SCSI-1 device, this drive, "locks" the SCSI bus during some tape operations, including: fsf, rewind, and rewoffl. If you are using the NCR SCSI controllers, patch the file /usr/src/sys/pci/ncr.c (as shown below). Build and install a new kernel. *** 4831,4835 **** }; ! if (np->latetime>4) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, --- 4831,4836 ---- }; ! if (np->latetime>1200) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, Reported by: Jonathan M. Bresler _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2 Archive Python" FreeBSD Handbook 254 The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE Python 28454-XXX4ASB" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "density code 0x8c, 512-byte blocks" This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB on 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is XXX. This drive was repackaged by Sun Microsystems as model 411. Reported by: Bob Bishop rb@gid.co.uk _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._3 Archive Viper 60" The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE VIPER 60 21116 -007" "type 1 removable SCSI 1" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 60MB. Data transfer rate is XXX. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Philippe Regnauld regnauld@hsc.fr _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._4 Archive Viper 150" The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21531 -004" "Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue" "type 1 removable SCSI 1". A multitude of firmware revisions exist for this drive. Your drive may report different num bers (e.g "21247 -005". This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. Both 150MB (DC6150) and 250MB (DC6250) tapes have the recording format. The 250MB tapes are approximately 67% longer than the 150MB tapes. This drive can read 120MB tapes as well. It can not write 120MB tapes. Data transfer rate is 100kB/s This drive reads and writes DC6150 (150MB) and DC6250 (250MB) tapes. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st(4)). Under FreeBSD 2.2-current, use mt blocksize 512 to set the blocksize. (The FreeBSD Handbook 255 particular drive had firmware revision 21247 -005. Other firmware revisions may behave differently) Previous versions of FreeBSD did not have this problem. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._5 Archive Viper 2525" The boot message identifier for this drive is "ARCHIVE VIPER 2525 25462 -011" "type 1 removable SCSI 1" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s at 90 inches/sec. The drive reads QIC-525, QIC-150, QIC-120 and QIC-24 tapes. Writes QIC-525, QIC-150, and QIC-120. Firmware revisions prior to "25462 -011" are bug ridden and will not function properly. Production of this drive has been discontinued. _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._6 Conner 420R" The boot message identifier for this drive is "Conner tape". This is a floppy controller, minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-80 tape cartridges. Reported by: Mark Hannon mark@seeware.DIALix.oz.au _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._7 Conner CTMS 3200" The boot message identifier for this drive is "CONNER CTMS 3200 7.00" "type 1 removable SCSI 2". This is a minicartridge tape drive. FreeBSD Handbook 256 Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-3080 tape cartridges. Reported by: Thomas S. Traylor tst@titan.cs.mci.com _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._8 " The boot message identifier for this drive is "DEC TZ87 (C) DEC 9206" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "density code 0x19" This is a DLT tape drive. Native capacity is 10GB. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 1.2MB/s. This drive is identical to the Quantum DLT2000. The drive firmware can be set to emulate several well-known drives, including an Exabyte 8mm drive. Reported by: Wilko Bulte _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._9 " The boot message identifier for this drive is "EXABYTE EXB-2501" This is a mini-cartridge tape drive. Native capacity is 1GB when using MC3000XL minicartridges. Data transfer rate is XXX This drive can read and write DC2300 (550MB), DC2750 (750MB), MC3000 (750MB), and MC3000XL (1GB) minicartridges. WARNING: This drive does not meet the SCSI-2 specifications. The drive locks up completely in response to a SCSI MODE_SELECT command unless there is a for matted tape in the drive. Before using this drive, set the tape blocksize with mt -f /dev/st0ctl.0 blocksize 1024 Before using a minicartridge for the first time, the minicartridge must be for mated. FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE and earlier: /sbin/scsi -f /dev/rst0.ctl -s 600 -c "4 0 0 0 0 0" FreeBSD Handbook 257 (Alternatively, fetch a copy of the scsiformat shell script from FreeBSD 2.1.5/2.2.) FreeBSD 2.1.5 and later: /sbin/scsiformat -q -w /dev/rst0.ctl Right now, this drive cannot really be recommended for FreeBSD. Reported by: Bob Beaulieu ez@eztravel.com _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_0 _E_x_a_b_y_t_e EXB-8200" The boot message identifier for this drive is "EXABYTE EXB-8200 252X" "type 1 removable SCSI 1" This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 2.3GB. Data transfer rate is 270kB/s. This drive is fairly slow in responding to the SCSI bus during boot. A custom kernel may be required (set SCSI_DELAY to 10 seconds). There are a large number of firmware configurations for this drive, some have been customized to a particular vendor's hardware. The firmware can be changed via EPROM replacement. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_1 Exabyte EXB-8500" The boot message identifier for this drive is "EXABYTE EXB-8500-85Qanx0 0415" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 5GB. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Greg Lehey grog@lemis.de _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_2 " The boot message identifier for this drive is "EXABYTE EXB-85058SQANXR1 05B0" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" FreeBSD Handbook 258 This is an 8mm tape drive which supports compression, and is upward compatible with the EXB-5200 and EXB-8500. Native capacity is 5GB. The drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_3 Hewlett-Packard HP C1533A" The boot message identifier for this drive is "HP C1533A 9503" "type 1 remov able SCSI 2". This is a DDS-2 tape drive. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 6000eU and 6000i tape drives and C1533A DDS-2 DAT drive. The drive has a block of 8 dip switches. The proper settings for FreeBSD are: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 OFF; 4 ON; 5 ON; 6 ON; 7 ON; 8 ON. switch 1 2 Result ON ON Compression enabled at power-on, with host control ON OFF Compression enabled at power-on, no host control OFF ON Compression disabled at power-on; the host is allowed to control compression OFF OFF Compression disabled at power-on, no host control Switch 3 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. These identify the tape as DDS (Digital Data Storage) grade media. Tapes that do not have the stripes will be treated as write-pro tected. Switch 3 OFF enables MRS. Switch 3 ON disables MRS. See HP SureStore Tape Products and Hewlett-Packard Disk and Tape Technical Information for more information on configuring this drive. _W_a_r_n_i_n_g_: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 2 of these drives. Neither lasted more than 5 months. Reported by: Stefan Esser FreeBSD Handbook 259 _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_4 Hewlett-Packard HP 1534A" The boot message identifier for this drive is "HP HP35470A T503" type 1 remov able SCSI 2" "Sequential-Access density code 0x13, variable blocks". This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. The HP C1534A DDS format DAT drive has two indicator lights, one green and one amber. The green one indicates tape action: slow flash during load, steady when loaded, fast flash during read/write operations. The amber one indicates warnings: slow flash when cleaning is required or tape is nearing the end of its useful life, steady indicates an hard fault. (factory service required?) Reported by Gary Crutcher gcrutchr@nightflight.com _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_5 Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2" The boot message identifier for this drive is "". This is a DDS-2 tape drive with a tape changer. DDS-2 means hardware data com pression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 24GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s (native). This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 12000e tape drive. The drive has two selectors on the rear panel. The selector closer to the fan is SCSI id. The other selector should be set to 7. There are four internal switches. These should be set: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 ON; 4 OFF. At present the kernel drivers do not automatically change tapes at the end of a volume. This shell script can be used to change tapes: FreeBSD Handbook 260 #!/bin/sh PATH="/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin"; export PATH usage() { echo "Usage: dds_changer [123456ne] raw-device-name echo "1..6 = Select cartridge" echo "next cartridge" echo "eject magazine" exit 2 } if [ $# -ne 2 ] ; then usage fi cdb3=0 cdb4=0 cdb5=0 case $1 in [123456]) cdb3=$1 cdb4=1 ;; n) ;; e) cdb5=0x80 ;; ?) usage ;; esac scsi -f $2 -s 100 -c "1b 0 0 $cdb3 $cdb4 $cdb5" _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_6 Hewlett-Packard HP 35450A" The boot message identifier for this drive is "HP HP35450A -A C620" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "Sequential-Access density code 0x13" This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 1.2GB. Data transfer rate is 160kB/s. Reported by: mark thompson mark.a.thompson@pobox.com FreeBSD Handbook 261 _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_7 Hewlett-Packard HP 35470A" The boot message identifier for this drive is "HP HP35470A 9 09" type 1 remov able SCSI 2" This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive, and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. _W_a_r_n_i_n_g_: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 5 of these drives. None lasted more than 9 months. Reported by: David Dawes dawes@rf900.physics.usyd.edu.au (9 09) _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_8 Hewlett-Packard HP 35480A" The boot message identifier for this drive is "HP HP35480A 1009" "type 1 remov able SCSI 2" "Sequential-Access density code 0x13". This is a DDS-DC tape drive. DDS-DC is DDS-1 with hardware data compression. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. It cannot handle 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Please refer to the section on _H_P _C_1_5_3_3_A (section 12.5.5.7.13, page 258) for the proper switch settings. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 5000eU and 5000i tape drives and C35480A DDS format DAT drive.. This drive will occasionally hang during a tape eject operation (mt offline). Pressing the front panel button will eject the tape and bring the tape drive back to life. WARNING: HP 35480-03110 only. On at least two occasions this tape drive when used with FreeBSD 2.1.0, an IBM Server 320 and an 2940W SCSI controller resulted in all SCSI disk partitions being lost. The problem has not be ana lyzed or resolved at this time. _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._1_9 " FreeBSD Handbook 262 There are at least two significantly different models: one is a DDS-1 and the other DDS-2. The DDS-1 version is "SDT-5000 3.02". The DDS-2 version is "SONY SDT-5000 327M". The DDS-2 version has a 1MB cache. This cache is able to keep the tape streaming in almost any circumstances. The boot message identifier for this drive is "SONY SDT-5000 3.02" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "Sequential-Access density code 0x13" Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is depends upon the model or the drive. The rate is 630kB/s for the "SONY SDT-5000 327M" while compressing the data. For the "SONY SDT-5000 3.02", the data transfer rate is 225kB/s. In order to get this drive to stream, set the blocksize to 512 bytes (mt block size 512) reported by Kenneth Merry ken@ulc199.residence.gatech.edu" "SONY SDT-5000 327M" information reported by Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Reported by: Jean-Marc Zucconi _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2_0 Tandberg TDC 3600" The boot message identifier for this drive is "TANDBERG TDC 3600 =08:" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. This drive has quirks which are known and work around code is present in the scsi tape device driver (st(4)). Upgrading the firmware to XXX version will fix the quirks and provide SCSI 2 capabilities. Data transfer rate is 80kB/s. IBM and Emerald units will not work. Replacing the firmware EPROM of these units will solve the problem. Reported by: Michael Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2_1 Tandberg TDC 3620" This is very similar to the _T_a_n_d_b_e_r_g _T_D_C _3_6_0_0 (section 12.5.5.7.20, page 262) drive. Reported by: Jrg Wunsch FreeBSD Handbook 263 _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2_2 Tandberg TDC 4222" The boot message identifier for this drive is "TANDBERG TDC 4222 =07" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB. The drive will read all cartridges from the 60 MB (DC600A) upwards, and write 150 MB (DC6150) upwards. Hardware compression is optionally supported for the 2.5 GB cartridges. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st(4)) beginning with FreeBSD 2.2-current. For previous versions of FreeBSD, use mt to read one block from the tape, rewind the tape, and then execute the backup program (mt fsr 1; mt rewind; dump ...) Data transfer rate is 600kB/s (vendor claim with compression), 350 KB/s can even be reached in start/stop mode. The rate decreases for smaller cartridges. Reported by: Jrg Wunsch _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2_3 Wangtek 5525ES" The boot message identifier for this drive is "WANGTEK 5525ES SCSI REV7 3R1" "type 1 removable SCSI 1" "density code 0x11, 1024-byte blocks" This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s. The drive reads 60, 120, 150, and 525MB tapes. The drive will not write 60MB (DC600 cartridge) tapes. In order to overwrite 120 and 150 tapes reliably, first erase (mt erase) the tape. 120 and 150 tapes used a wider track (fewer tracks per tape) than 525MB tapes. The "extra" width of the previous tracks is not overwritten, as a result the new data lies in a band surrounded on both sides by the previous data unless the tape have been erased. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st(4)). Other firmware revisions that are known to work are: M75D Reported by: Marc van Kempen marc@bowtie.nl "REV73R1" Andrew Gordon Andrew.Gordon@net-tel.co.uk "M75D" _1_2_._5_._5_._7_._2_4 Wangtek 6200" FreeBSD Handbook 264 The boot message identifier for this drive is "WANGTEK 6200-HS 4B18" "type 1 removable SCSI 2" "Sequential-Access density code 0x13" This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2GB using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 150kB/s. Reported by: Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM _1_2_._5_._5_._8 _* _P_r_o_b_l_e_m _d_r_i_v_e_s _1_2_._5_._6 _C_D_-_R_O_M _d_r_i_v_e_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _D_a_v_i_d _O_'_B_r_i_e_n . 23 November 1997. As mentioned in _J_o_r_d_a_n_'_s _P_i_c_k_s (section 12.2.1.4, page 199) Generally speaking those in _T_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _P_r_o_j_e_c_t prefer SCSI CDROM drives over IDE CDROM drives. However not all SCSI CDROM drives are equal. Some feel the quality of some SCSI CDROM drives have been deteriorating to that of IDE CDROM drives. Toshiba used to be the favored stand-by, but many on the SCSI mailing list have found displeasure with the 12x speed XM-5701TA as its volume (when playing audio CDROMs) is not controllable by the various audio player software. Another area where SCSI CDROM manufacturers are cutting corners is adhearance to the _S_C_S_I _s_p_e_c_i_f_i_c_a_t_i_o_n (section 12.5.2.5, page 248). Many SCSI CDROMs will respond to _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e _L_U_N_s (section 12.5.2.3.5, page 245) for its target address. Known violators include the 6x Teac CD-56S 1.0D. _1_2_._5_._7 _* _O_t_h_e_r _1_2_._6 _* _O_t_h_e_r _1_2_._6_._1 _* _P_C_M_C_I_A _1_3_. _L_o_c_a_l_i_z_a_t_i_o_n _1_3_._1 _R_u_s_s_i_a_n _L_a_n_g_u_a_g_e _(_K_O_I_8_-_R _e_n_c_o_d_i_n_g_) _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _A_n_d_r_e_y _A_. _C_h_e_r_n_o_v 1 May 1997. See more info about KOI8-R encoding at KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). _1_3_._1_._1 _C_o_n_s_o_l_e _S_e_t_u_p 1. Add following line to your kernel configuration file: options "SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03" FreeBSD Handbook 265 to move character codes used for mouse cursor off KOI8-R pseudographics range. 2. Russian console entry in /etc/rc.conf should looks like keymap=ru.koi8-r keychange="61 ^[[K" scrnmap=koi8-r2cp866 font8x16=cp866b-8x16 font8x14=cp866-8x14 font8x8=cp866-8x8 _N_O_T_E_: ^[ means that real ESC character must be entered into /etc/rc.conf, not just ^[ string. This tuning means KOI8-R keyboard with Alternative screen font mapped to KOI8-R encoding to preserve pseudographics, _G_r_a_y _D_e_l_e_t_e key remapped to match Russian termcap(5) entry for FreeBSD console. RUS/LAT switch will be CCaappssLLoocckk. Old CapsLock function still available via SShhiifftt++CCaappssLLoocckk. CapsLock LED will indicate RUS mode, not CapsLock mode. 3. For each ttyv? entry in /etc/ttys change terminal type from cons25 to cons25r, i.e. each entry should looks like ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25r on secure _1_3_._1_._2 _L_o_c_a_l_e _S_e_t_u_p There is two environment variables for locale setup: LANG for POSIX setlocale(3) family functions; MM_CHARSET for applications MIME chararter set. The best way is using /etc/login.conf russian user's login class in passwd(5) entry login class position. See login.conf(5) for details. _1_3_._1_._2_._1 _L_o_g_i_n _C_l_a_s_s _M_e_t_h_o_d First of all check your /etc/login.conf have russian login class, this entry may looks like: russian:Russian Users Accounts:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:\ :tc=default: FreeBSD Handbook 266 _1_3_._1_._2_._1_._1 _H_o_w _t_o _d_o _i_t _w_i_t_h _v_i_p_w_(_8_) If you use vipw(8) for adding new users, /etc/master.passwd entry should looks like: user:password:1111:11:russian:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/csh _1_3_._1_._2_._1_._2 _H_o_w _t_o _d_o _i_t _w_i_t_h _a_d_d_u_s_e_r_(_8_) If you use adduser(8) for adding new users: Set defaultclass = russian in /etc/adduser.conf (you must enter default class for all non-Russian users in this case); Alternative variant will be answering russian each time when you see Enter login class: default []: prompt from adduser(8); Another variant: call # adduser -class russian for each Russian user you want to add. _1_3_._1_._2_._1_._3 _H_o_w _t_o _d_o _i_t _w_i_t_h _p_w_(_8_) If you use pw(8) for adding new users, call it in this form: # pw useradd user_name -L russian _1_3_._1_._2_._2 _S_h_e_l_l _S_t_a_r_t_u_p _F_i_l_e_s _M_e_t_h_o_d If you don't want to use _l_o_g_i_n _c_l_a_s_s _m_e_t_h_o_d (section 13.1.2.1, page 265) for some reasons, just set this _t_w_o _e_n_v_i_r_o_n_m_e_n_t _v_a_r_i_a_b_l_e_s (section 13.1.2, page 265) in the following shell startup files: /etc/profile: LANG=ru_RU.KOI8-R; export LANG MM_CHARSET=KOI8-R; export MM_CHARSET FreeBSD Handbook 267 /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG ru_RU.KOI8-R setenv MM_CHARSET KOI8-R Alternatively you can add this instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile: (similar to /etc/profile above); /usr/share/skel/dot.login: (similar to /etc/csh.login above). _1_3_._1_._3 _P_r_i_n_t_e_r _S_e_t_u_p Since most printers with Russian characters comes with hardware code page CP866, special output filter needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such filter installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. So, Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should looks like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: see printcap(5) for detailed description. _1_3_._1_._4 _M_S_D_O_S _F_S _a_n_d _R_u_s_s_i_a_n _f_i_l_e _n_a_m_e_s Look at following example fstab(5) entry to enable support for Russian file names in MSDOS FS: /dev/sd0s1 /dos/c msdos rw,-W=koi2dos,-L=ru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 see mount_msdos(8) for detailed description of -W and -L options. _1_3_._1_._5 _X _W_i_n_d_o_w _S_e_t_u_p Step by step instructions: 1. Do _n_o_n_-_X _l_o_c_a_l_e _s_e_t_u_p (section 13.1.2, page 265) first as described. _N_O_T_E_: Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). XFree86 port from /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 already have most recent XFree86 version, so it will work, if you install XFree86 from this port. XFree86 version shipped with the latest FreeBSD distribution should work too (check XFree86 version number not less than 3.3 first). FreeBSD Handbook 268 2. Go to /usr/ports/russian/X.language directory and say # make all install there. This port install latest version of KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already have some KOI8-R fonts, but this ones scaled better. Check find "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config, following lines must be before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use high resolution video mode, swap 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. 3. To activate Russian keyboard add XkbKeymap "xfree86(ru)" line into "Keyboard" section in your /etc/XF86Config, also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. RUS/LAT switch will be CCaappssLLoocckk. Old CapsLock function still available via SShhiifftt++CCaappssLLoocckk (in LAT mode only). _N_O_T_E_: Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see _l_o_c_a_l_e _n_o_t_e (section 13.1.5, page 267) for more info. Russian XKB key board may not work with non-localized applications too, minimally local ized application should call XXttSSeettLLaanngguuaaggeePPrroocc (NULL, NULL, NULL); func tion early in the program. _1_3_._2 _G_e_r_m_a_n _L_a_n_g_u_a_g_e _(_I_S_O _8_8_5_9_-_1_) Slaven Rezic wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/umlaute/. FreeBSD Handbook 269 Part III Network Communications _1_4_. _S_e_r_i_a_l _C_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s _1_4_._1 _S_e_r_i_a_l _B_a_s_i_c_s _A_s_s_e_m_b_l_e_d _f_r_o_m _F_A_Q_. This section should give you some general information about serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the Terminal and Dialup sections of the handbook. The ttydX (or cuaaX) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the ``initial state'' device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, do: stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff A good place to do this is in /etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will have these settings by default when it opens ttyd5. It can still change these set tings to its liking, though. You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an application by making adjustments to the ``lock state'' device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by root. The MAKEDEV script does NNOOTT do this when it creates the device entries. FreeBSD Handbook 270 _1_4_._2 _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_e_a_n _K_e_l_l_y 28 July 1996 Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. _1_4_._2_._1 _U_s_e_s _a_n_d _T_y_p_e_s _o_f _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix- style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: _D_u_m_b _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s (section 14.2.1.1, page 270) _P_C_s _a_c_t_i_n_g _a_s _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s (section 14.2.1.2, page 271) _X _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s (section 14.2.1.3, page 271) The remaining subsections describe each kind. _1_4_._2_._1_._1 _D_u_m_b _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to com puters over serial lines. They are called ``dumb'' because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need FreeBSD Handbook 271 access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. _1_4_._2_._1_._2 _P_C_s _A_c_t_i_n_g _A_s _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s If a _d_u_m_b _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l (section 14.2.1.1, page 270) has just enough ability to dis play, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l _e_m_u_l_a_t_i_o_n software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. _1_4_._2_._1_._3 _X _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l_s X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does _n_o_t cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. _1_4_._2_._2 _C_a_b_l_e_s _a_n_d _P_o_r_t_s To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 14.2.3, page 273). _1_4_._2_._2_._1 _C_a_b_l_e_s Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use serial---also known as RS-232C---cables to connect the terminal to the FreeBSD system. There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect: If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a terminal, use a _n_u_l_l_-_m_o_d_e_m (section 14.2.2.1.1, page 272) cable. A null-modem cable con nects two computers or terminals together. If you have an actual terminal, your best source of information on what cable to use is the documentation that accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the documentation, then try a _n_u_l_l_-_m_o_d_e_m (section 14.2.2.1.1, page 272) cable. If that does not work, then try a _s_t_a_n_d_a_r_d (section 14.2.2.1.2, page 272) cable. Also, the serial port on _b_o_t_h the terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will fit the cable you are using. FreeBSD Handbook 272 _1_4_._2_._2_._1_._1 _N_u_l_l_-_m_o_d_e_m _c_a_b_l_e_s A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like ``signal ground,'' but switches other signals. For example, the ``send data'' pin on one end goes to the ``receive data'' pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, here is a table showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin# Pin# Signal TxD 2 ----------------------- 3 RxD RxD 3 ----------------------- 2 TxD DTR 20 ----------------------- 6 DSR DSR 6 ----------------------- 20 DTR SG 7 ----------------------- 7 SG DCD 8 ----------------------+ 4 RTS* *RTS 4 + + 5 CTS* *CTS 5 +---------------------- 8 DCD * Connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. _1_4_._2_._2_._1_._2 _S_t_a_n_d_a_r_d _R_S_-_2_3_2_C _C_a_b_l_e_s A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the ``send data'' pin on one end of the cable goes to the ``send data'' pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. _1_4_._2_._2_._2 _P_o_r_t_s Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. _1_4_._2_._2_._2_._1 _K_i_n_d_s _o_f _P_o_r_t_s Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works, too. _1_4_._2_._2_._2_._2 _P_o_r_t _N_a_m_e_s In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: FreeBSD Handbook 273 Callin ports are named /dev/ttyd_X where _X is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the callin port for terminals. Callin ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Callout ports are named /dev/cuaa_X. You usually do not use the callout port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the callout port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. See the sio(4) manual page for more information. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in DOS par lance), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial card. See _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _K_e_r_n_e_l (section 5., page 80) for more information. _1_4_._2_._3 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected---and that you have connected it. In a nutshell, you need to tell the init process, which is responsible for pro cess control and initialization, to start a getty process, which is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. To do so, you have to edit the /etc/ttys file. First, use the su command to become root. Then, make the following changes to /etc/ttys: 1. Add an line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. 2. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. 3. Specify the default terminal type. 4. Set the port to ``on.'' 5. Specify whether the port should be ``secure.'' 6. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This document does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the gettytab(5) and the getty(8) manual pages for more information. The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what we need to do. In our FreeBSD Handbook 274 example, we will connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We con nect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). For more information on the /etc/ttys file, see the ttys(5) manual page. _1_4_._2_._3_._1 _A_d_d_i_n_g _a_n _E_n_t_r_y _t_o _/_e_t_c_/_t_t_y_s First, you need to add an entry to the /etc/ttys file, unless one is already there. The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part. When you installed your FreeBSD system, the /etc/ttys file included entries for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a ter minal on one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry. In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial port, ttyd1, which is already in the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the /etc/ttys file after we add the new entry: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd5 _1_4_._2_._3_._2 _S_p_e_c_i_f_y_i_n_g _t_h_e _g_e_t_t_y _T_y_p_e Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to do that is /usr/libexec/getty. It is what provides the login: prompt. The program getty takes one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The manual page gettytab(5) provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communi cations settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 FreeBSD Handbook 275 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. Here is the /etc/ttys file so far (showing just the two terminals in which we are interested): ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" Note that the second field---where we specify what program to run---appears in quotes. This is important, otherwise the type argument to getty might be interpreted as the next field. _1_4_._2_._3_._3 _S_p_e_c_i_f_y_i_n_g _t_h_e _D_e_f_a_u_l_t _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l _T_y_p_e The third field in the /etc/ttys file lists the default terminal type for the port. For dialup ports, you typically put unknown or dialup in this field because users may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type in this field. Users will usually use the tset program in their .login or .profile files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if necessary. By setting a terminal type in the /etc/ttys file, users can forego such prompting. To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the file /usr/share/misc/termcap. It lists about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See the termcap(5) manual page for information. In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal (although it can emu late others, we will leave it in Wyse-50 mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries from the /etc/ttys file: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 _1_4_._2_._3_._4 _E_n_a_b_l_i_n_g _t_h_e _P_o_r_t The next field in /etc/ttys, the fourth field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the sec ond field, getty, which will prompt for a login. If you put off in the fourth field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. So, naturally, you want an on in this field. Here again is the /etc/ttys file. We have turned each port on. ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on _1_4_._2_._3_._5 _S_p_e_c_i_f_y_i_n_g _S_e_c_u_r_e _P_o_r_t_s We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an optional window specifier, but we will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is secure. FreeBSD Handbook 276 What does ``secure'' mean? It means that the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow root to login. How do you use secure and insecure ports? By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is connected will not allow root to login. People who know the root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login using a regular user account. To gain superuser priv ileges, they will then have to use the su command. Because of this, you will have two records to help track down possible compro mises of root privileges: both the login and the su command make records in the system log (and logins are also recorded in the wtmp file). By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root in. People who know the root password will just login as root. You will not have the potentially useful login and su command records. Which should you use? Just use ``insecure.'' Use ``insecure'' _e_v_e_n for terminals _n_o_t in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Here finally are the completed entries in the /etc/ttys file, with comments added to describe where the terminals are: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom _1_4_._2_._3_._6 _F_o_r_c_e _i_n_i_t _t_o _R_e_r_e_a_d /etc/ttys" When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, init, will read the /etc/ttys file and start the programs listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins. After you edit /etc/ttys, you do not want to have to reboot your system to get init to see the changes. So, init will reread /etc/ttys if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup) signal. So, after you have saved your changes to /etc/ttys, send SIGHUP to init by typ ing: kill -HUP 1 (The init process _a_l_w_a_y_s has process ID 1.) If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts. Your terminals are ready for their first logins! FreeBSD Handbook 277 _1_4_._2_._4 _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some sug gested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the con trast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. Type ps -axww|grep getty to get a list of running getty processes. You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the display 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab. If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Make sure you have run kill -HUP 1. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from ``half duplex'' or ``local echo'' to ``full duplex.'' _1_4_._3 _D_i_a_l_i_n _S_e_r_v_i_c_e _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_u_y _H_e_l_m_e_r . This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD system to handle dialup modems. This document is written based on the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1 (and experience with dialup modems on other UNIX-like operating systems); however, this document may not answer all FreeBSD Handbook 278 of your questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment. The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. _1_4_._3_._1 _P_r_e_r_e_q_u_i_s_i_t_e_s To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know how to edit files in a UNIX-like envi ronment, and how to look up manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology & modem and cabling. _1_4_._3_._1_._1 _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _V_e_r_s_i_o_n First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1 or higher (includ ing versions 2.x). FreeBSD version 1.0 included two different serial drivers, which complicates the situation. Also, the serial device driver (sio) has improved in every release of FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions. _1_4_._3_._1_._2 _T_e_r_m_i_n_o_l_o_g_y A quick rundown of terminology: bps Bits per Second - the rate at which data is transmitted DTE Data Terminal Equipment - for example, your computer DCE Data Communications Equipment - your modem RS-232 EIA standard for serial communications via hardware If you need more information about these terms and data communications in gen eral, the author remembers reading that _T_h_e _R_S_-_2_3_2 _B_i_b_l_e (anybody have an ISBN?) is a good reference. When talking about communications data rates, the author does not use the term bbaauudd. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bbppss (bits per second) is the ``correct'' term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). _1_4_._3_._1_._3 _E_x_t_e_r_n_a_l _v_s_. _I_n_t_e_r_n_a_l _M_o_d_e_m_s External modems seem to be more convenient for dialup, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be FreeBSD Handbook 279 limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. _1_4_._3_._1_._4 _M_o_d_e_m_s _a_n_d _C_a_b_l_e_s A background knowledge of these items is assumed You know how to connect your modem to your computer so that the two can communicate (unless you have an internal modem, which does not need such a cable) You are familiar with your modem's command set, or know where to look up needed commands You know how to configure your modem (probably via a terminal communica tions program) so you can set the non-volatile RAM parameters The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple - most straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You need to have a cable with appro priate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9, male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE cable with these signals wired: Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy. Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own modem's commands. Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other UNIX-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the FreeBSD Handbook 280 hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. _1_4_._3_._1_._5 _S_e_r_i_a_l _I_n_t_e_r_f_a_c_e _C_o_n_s_i_d_e_r_a_t_i_o_n_s FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have sin gle-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-char acter-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much pref ered. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. _1_4_._3_._2 _Q_u_i_c_k _O_v_e_r_v_i_e_w Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dialup logins. A getty pro cess, spawned by init, patiently waits to open the assigned serial port (/dev/ttyd0, for our example). The command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD line is asserted by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the speci fied initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. We hope getty finds the correct speed and the user sees a login: prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which com pletes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Let's dive into the configuration... _1_4_._3_._3 _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four serial ports, known in the PC-DOS world as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD can presently also handle ``dumb'' multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board 1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page sio(4) for kernel configuration information if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports, though. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the ker nel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. Hint: to view just the messages that have the word sio, use FreeBSD Handbook 281 the command: /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port spe cific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on ``Building Berkeley Ker nels with Config'' [the source for which is in /usr/src/share/doc/smm] and ``FreeBSD Configuration Options'' [in /sys/conf/options and in /sys/_a_r_c_h/conf/options._a_r_c_h, with _a_r_c_h for example being i386] for more infor mation on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (srcdist/srcsys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1, srcdist/sys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels. Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you have not already) by cding to /sys/i386/conf. Then, if you are creating a new custom configuration file, copy the file GENERICAH (or GENERICBT, if you have a BusTek SCSI con troller on FreeBSD 1.x) to _Y_O_U_R_S_Y_S, where _Y_O_U_R_S_Y_S is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the file, and change the device lines: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the Boca Board BB2016, please see the sio(4) man page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. Note that port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports ccaannnnoott share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). FreeBSD Handbook 282 When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file, use the program config as documented in ``Building Berkeley Kernels with Config'' and the con fig(8) manual page to prepare a kernel building directory, then build, install, and test the new kernel. _1_4_._3_._4 _D_e_v_i_c_e _S_p_e_c_i_a_l _F_i_l_e_s Most devices in the kernel are accessed through ``device special files'', which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttyd? (dial-in) and /dev/cua0? (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices (/dev/ttyid? and /dev/cuai0?) and locking devices (/dev/ttyld? and /dev/cual0?). The initial ization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages termios(4), sio(4), and stty(1) for information on the terminal settings, locking & ini tializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. _1_4_._3_._4_._1 _M_a_k_i_n_g _D_e_v_i_c_e _S_p_e_c_i_a_l _F_i_l_e_s A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. (The manual page for MAKEDEV(8) on FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of COM ports, so ignore it.) To use MAKEDEV to make dialup device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dialup device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttyd? device special files, but also creates the /dev/cua0? (and all of the initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file /dev/tty0?, if it exists. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read & write on them - you proba bly do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dialout. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cua01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuai01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cual01 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. _1_4_._3_._5 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _F_i_l_e_s There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dialup access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script FreeBSD Handbook 283 if you have FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the /etc/rc.local script. There are two schools of thought regarding dialup modems on UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and system so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as ``junk'', tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseum, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former ``locked-speed'' method, but a user on a low- speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. The author will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. _1_4_._3_._5_._1 _/_e_t_c_/_g_e_t_t_y_t_a_b /etc/gettytab is a termcap(5)-style file of configuration information for getty(8). Please see the gettytab(5) manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. _1_4_._3_._5_._1_._1 _L_o_c_k_e_d_-_S_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. _1_4_._3_._5_._1_._2 _M_a_t_c_h_i_n_g_-_S_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. This entry already exists in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 gettytab file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under your version of FreeBSD: FreeBSD Handbook 284 # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add :np: parameters to the std._x_x_x entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity; otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (nneexxtt ttaabbllee) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (ttaabbllee ccoonnttiinnuuaa ttiioonn) entry to pick up the rest of the ``standard'' settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: FreeBSD Handbook 285 # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you do not have 16550A- based serial ports, you may receive sio ``silo'' errors at 57.6 Kbps. _1_4_._3_._5_._2 _/_e_t_c_/_t_t_y_s /etc/ttys is the list of ttys for init to monitor. /etc/ttys also provides security information to login (user root may only login on ttys marked secure). See the manual page for ttys(5) for more information. You will need to either modify existing lines in /etc/ttys or add new lines to make init run getty processes automatically on your new dialup ports. The gen eral format of the line will be the same, whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed configuration: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry - ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The sec ond item, "/usr/libexec/getty _x_x_x" (_x_x_x will be replaced by the initial get tytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dialup lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command kill -1 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected FreeBSD Handbook 286 before signaling init. _1_4_._3_._5_._2_._1 _L_o_c_k_e_d_-_S_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate name for the std._s_p_e_e_d entry for std.19200 from /etc/gettytab for your modem's data rate. _1_4_._3_._5_._2_._2 _M_a_t_c_h_i_n_g_-_S_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning ``auto-baud'' (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on _1_4_._3_._5_._3 _/_e_t_c_/_r_c_._s_e_r_i_a_l _o_r _/_e_t_c_/_r_c_._l_o_c_a_l High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up, or /etc/rc.local on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the hardware flow con trol flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system, /etc/rc.serial reads: #!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts which sets the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dialin and dialout initialization devices. On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to /etc/rc.local to set the crtscts flag on the devices: # Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f /dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts Since there is no initialization device special file on FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device special file and hope the flags are not FreeBSD Handbook 287 cleared by a miscreant. _1_4_._3_._6 _M_o_d_e_m _S_e_t_t_i_n_g_s If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under PC-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same com munications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line & resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP - DTR Normal Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP - Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN - No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP - Auto Answer Switch 6: UP - Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP - Load NVRAM Defaults FreeBSD Handbook 288 Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dialup modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. _1_4_._3_._6_._1 _L_o_c_k_e_d_-_s_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to main tain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W _1_4_._3_._6_._2 _M_a_t_c_h_i_n_g_-_s_p_e_e_d _C_o_n_f_i_g For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error- corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W _1_4_._3_._6_._3 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _t_h_e _M_o_d_e_m_'_s _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influ enced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. _1_4_._3_._7 _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dialup modem on your sys tem. _1_4_._3_._7_._1 _C_h_e_c_k_i_n_g _o_u_t _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _s_y_s_t_e_m Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console - if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropri ate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator doesn't light, login to the FreeBSD system through the FreeBSD Handbook 289 console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes dis played: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 ^^ and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttyd? port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple- check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttyd?, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. _1_4_._3_._7_._2 _T_r_y _D_i_a_l_i_n_g _I_n Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's inter face speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double- check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the FreeBSD general questions mailing list describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. FreeBSD Handbook 290 _1_4_._3_._8 _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s Thanks to these people for comments and advice: Sean Kelly " for a number of good suggestions _1_4_._4 _D_i_a_l_o_u_t _S_e_r_v_i_c_e _I_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_i_o_n _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_e_d _f_r_o_m _F_A_Q_. The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to ftp something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to ftp it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. _1_4_._4_._1 _W_h_y _c_a_n_n_o_t _I _r_u_n _t_i_p _o_r _c_u_? On your system, the programs tip and cu are probably executable only by uucp and group dialer. You can use the group dialer to control who has access to your modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group dialer. Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run tip and cu by typing: chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip You do not have to run this command for cu, since cu is just a hard link to tip. _1_4_._4_._2 _M_y _s_t_o_c_k _H_a_y_e_s _m_o_d_e_m _i_s _n_o_t _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_e_d_, _w_h_a_t _c_a_n _I _d_o_? Actually, the man page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use ``at=hayes'' in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems--messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Actually, as shipped tip does not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. FreeBSD Handbook 291 Edit the line ``#define HAYES 0'' to ``#define HAYES 1''. Then ``make'' and ``make install''. Everything works nicely after that. _1_4_._4_._3 _H_o_w _a_m _I _e_x_p_e_c_t_e_d _t_o _e_n_t_e_r _t_h_e_s_e _A_T _c_o_m_m_a_n_d_s_? Make what is called a ``direct'' entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type ``tip cuaa0'' and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: cd /dev MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: cu -l``line'' -s``speed'' with line being the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed being the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. _1_4_._4_._4 _T_h_e _@ _s_i_g_n _f_o_r _t_h_e _p_n _c_a_p_a_b_i_l_i_t_y _d_o_e_s _n_o_t _w_o_r_k_! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ _1_4_._4_._5 _H_o_w _c_a_n _I _d_i_a_l _a _p_h_o_n_e _n_u_m_b_e_r _o_n _t_h_e _c_o_m_m_a_n_d _l_i_n_e_? Put what is called a ``generic'' entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like ``tip -115200 5551234''. If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: FreeBSD Handbook 292 cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type ``cu 5551234 -s 115200''. _1_4_._4_._6 _D_o _I _h_a_v_e _t_o _t_y_p_e _i_n _t_h_e _b_p_s _r_a_t_e _e_v_e_r_y _t_i_m_e _I _d_o _t_h_a_t_? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a ``tip1200'' entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. _1_4_._4_._7 _I _a_c_c_e_s_s _a _n_u_m_b_e_r _o_f _h_o_s_t_s _t_h_r_o_u_g_h _a _t_e_r_m_i_n_a_l _s_e_r_v_e_r_. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing ``CONNECT '' each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cua02:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type ``tip pain'' or ``tip muffin'' to connect to the hosts pain or muffin; and ``tip deep13'' to get to the terminal server. _1_4_._4_._8 _C_a_n _t_i_p _t_r_y _m_o_r_e _t_h_a_n _o_n_e _l_i_n_e _f_o_r _e_a_c_h _s_i_t_e_? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capabil ity: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. FreeBSD Handbook 293 _1_4_._4_._9 _W_h_y _d_o _I _h_a_v_e _t_o _h_i_t _C_T_R_L_+_P _t_w_i_c_e _t_o _s_e_n_d _C_T_R_L_+_P _o_n_c_e_? CTRL+P is the default ``force'' character, used to tell tip that the next char acter is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means ``set a variable.'' Type ``~sforce='' followed by a newline. is any single character. If you leave out , then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which I have seen only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the follow ing in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force= _1_4_._4_._1_0 _S_u_d_d_e_n_l_y _e_v_e_r_y_t_h_i_n_g _I _t_y_p_e _i_s _i_n _U_P_P_E_R _C_A_S_E_?_? You must have pressed CTRL+A, tip's ``raise character,'' specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable ``raisechar'' to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6. _1_4_._4_._1_1 _H_o_w _c_a_n _I _d_o _f_i_l_e _t_r_a_n_s_f_e_r_s _w_i_t_h _t_i_p_? If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run ``cat'' and ``echo'' on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p [] ~t [] There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. _1_4_._4_._1_2 _H_o_w _c_a_n _I _r_u_n _z_m_o_d_e_m _w_i_t_h _t_i_p_? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ``~C rz'' to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ``~C FreeBSD Handbook 294 sz '' to send them to the remote system. _1_5_. _P_P_P _a_n_d _S_L_I_P If your connection to the Internet is through a modem, or you wish to provide other people with dialup connections to the Internet using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. Furthermore, two varieties of PPP are pro vided: _u_s_e_r (sometimes referred to as iijppp) and _k_e_r_n_e_l. The procedures for configuring both types of PPP, and for setting up SLIP are described in this chapter. _1_5_._1 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _U_s_e_r _P_P_P User PPP was introduced to FreeBSD in release 2.0.5 as an addition to the existing kernel implementation of PPP. So, what is different about this new PPP that warrants its addition? To quote from the manual page: This is a user process PPP software package. Normally, PPP is imple mented as a part of the kernel (e.g. as managed by pppd) and it is thus somewhat hard to debug and/or modify its behavior. However, in this implementation PPP is done as a user process with the help of the tunnel device driver (tun). In essence, this means that rather than running a PPP daemon, the ppp program can be run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into the kernel, as the program can use the generic tunnel device to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out, user ppp will be referred to simply as ppp unless a distinc tion needs to be made between it and any other PPP client/server software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all commands in this section should be exe cuted as root. There are a large number of enhancements in version 2 of ppp. You can discover what version you have by running ppp with no arguments and typing show version at the prompt. It is a simple matter to upgrade to the latest version of ppp (under any version of FreeBSD) by downloading the latest archive via www.Awfulhak.org12 . _1_5_._1_._1 _B_e_f_o_r_e _y_o_u _s_t_a_r_t This document assumes you are in roughly this position: You have an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which lets you use PPP. Further, you have a modem (or other device) connected and configured cor rectly which allows you to connect to your ISP. You are going to need the following information to hand: ____________________ 12. FreeBSD Handbook 295 Your ISPs phone number(s). Your login name and password. This can be either a regular unix style login/password pair, or a PPP PAP or CHAP login/password pair. The IP addresses of one or more nameservers. Normally, you will be given two IP numbers. You MMUUSSTT have this information for ppp version 1.X unless you run your own nameserver. From version 2 onwards, ppp supports name server address negotiation. If your ISP also supports this, then using the command enable dns in your config file will tell ppp to set the name servers up for you. The following information may have been supplied by your ISP, but is not strictly necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If your ISP hasn't given you this number, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. Your ISP's netmask. If your ISP hasn't given you this information, you can safely use a netmask of 255.255.255.0. If your ISP allocates you a static IP address and hostname then you can enter this information. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP number it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. _1_5_._1_._2 _B_u_i_l_d_i_n_g _a _p_p_p _r_e_a_d_y _k_e_r_n_e_l As the description states, ``ppp'' uses the kernel ``tun'' device. It is nec essary to make sure that your kernel has support for this device compiled in. To check this, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your kernel configuration file. It needs to have the line pseudo-device tun 1 FreeBSD Handbook 296 in it somewhere. The stock GENERIC kernel has this as standard, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or you do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If your kernel configuration file does not have this line in it, or you need to configure more than one tun device (for example, if you are setting up a server and could have 16 dialup ppp connections at any one time then you will need to use ``16'' instead of ``1''), then you should add the line, re-compile, re- install and boot the new kernel. Please refer to the _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _K_e_r_n_e_l (section 5., page 80) section for more information on kernel configura tion. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: # ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051 mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050 mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051 mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8010 mtu 1500 which in this case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently con figured and being used. It should be noted that the RUNNING flag above indi cates that the interface has been used as some point - it is not an error if your interface does not show up as RUNNING. If you have a kernel without the tun device, and you can not rebuild it for some reason, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Refer to the appropriate modload(8) and lkm(4) pages for further details. You may also wish to take this opportunity to configure a firewall. Details can be found in the _F_i_r_e_w_a_l_l_s (section 6.4, page 114) section. _1_5_._1_._3 _C_h_e_c_k _t_h_e _t_u_n _d_e_v_i_c_e Most users will only require one ``tun'' device (tun0). If you have used more (i.e., a number other than `1' in the pseudo-device line in the kernel configu ration file) then alter all references to ``tun0'' below to reflect whichever device number you are using. The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly is to re-make it. To do this, execute the following commands: # cd /dev # ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you require 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create more than just tun0: # cd /dev # ./MAKEDEV tun15 FreeBSD Handbook 297 Also, to confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, the following command should give the indicated output: $ ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050 mtu 1500 $ The RUNNING flag may not yet be set, in which case you'll see: $ ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8010 mtu 1500 $ _1_5_._1_._4 _N_a_m_e _R_e_s_o_l_u_t_i_o_n _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts (man 5 hosts). The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a dis tributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this docu ment. This section describes briefly how to configure your resolver. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do nnoott call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra ``s'') as the results can be confusing. _1_5_._1_._4_._1 _E_d_i_t _t_h_e _/_e_t_c_/_h_o_s_t_._c_o_n_f _f_i_l_e This file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind which instructs the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. _1_5_._1_._4_._2 _E_d_i_t _t_h_e _/_e_t_c_/_h_o_s_t_s_(_5_) _f_i_l_e This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your net work. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo The first line defines the alias ``localhost'' as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second line maps the name ``foo.bar.com'' (and the shorthand ``foo'') to the IP address 10.0.0.1. FreeBSD Handbook 298 If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, then use these in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. _1_5_._1_._4_._3 _E_d_i_t _t_h_e _/_e_t_c_/_r_e_s_o_l_v_._c_o_n_f _f_i_l_e /etc/resolv.conf tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the fol lowing line(s): nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y domain bar.com The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many ``nameserver'' lines as your ISP provides. The ``domain'' line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the resolv.conf manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. If you're running ppp version 2 or greater, the ``enable dns'' command will tell ppp to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), ppp will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. _1_5_._1_._5 _P_P_P _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n Both user ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use configura tion files located in the /etc/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference for user ppp, so don't delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address can be different for each PPP session). _1_5_._1_._5_._1 _P_P_P _a_n_d _S_t_a_t_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s " You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Note that lines that end in a ``:'' start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. FreeBSD Handbook 299 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(0123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 10 add default HISADDR 11 enable dns Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discus sion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1: is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2: is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 doesn't work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: The dial string. User ppp uses an expect-send syntax similar to the chat(8) program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called ``provider''. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the ``:'' or ``|'' character as a separator. The difference between these spearators is described in the ppp manual page. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the num bers, use the ``:''. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first num ber fails, use the ``|''. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: FreeBSD Handbook 300 J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should enable ``chat'' logging to ensure that the conversation is going as expected. If you're using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string should be left blank. See _P_A_P _a_n_d _C_H_A_P _a_u_t_h_e_n_t_i_c_a_t_i_o_n (section 15.1.5.4, page 306) for further details. Line 8: Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a ``guessed'' address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for _P_P_P _a_n_d _D_y_n_a_m_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s (section 15.1.5.2, page 300). If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in -auto mode. Line 10: Adds a default route to your ISPs gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. Line 11: This line tells ppp to ask your ISP to confirm that your nameserver addresses are correct. If your ISP supports this facility, ppp can then update /etc/resolv.conf with the correct nameserver entries. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /etc/ppp directory. _1_5_._1_._5_._2 _P_P_P _a_n_d _D_y_n_a_m_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s " If your service provider does not assign static IP numbers, ppp can be config ured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by "guessing" FreeBSD Handbook 301 an IP number and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as _P_P_P _a_n_d _S_t_a_t_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s (section 15.1.5.1, page 298), with the following change: 9 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 9: The number after the ``/'' character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells ppp to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0/0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents ppp from setting up an ini tial route in -auto mode. If you are running version 1.X of ppp, you will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been estab lished. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should rreeaallllyy be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add default HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP number of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still haven't found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as nego tiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /etc/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Version 2 of ppp introduces ``sticky routes''. Any add or delete lines that contain MYADDR or HISADDR will be remembered, and any time the actual values of MYADDR or HISADDR change, the routes will be re-applied. This removes the FreeBSD Handbook 302 necessity of repeating these lines in ppp.linkup. _1_5_._1_._5_._3 _R_e_c_e_i_v_i_n_g _i_n_c_o_m_i_n_g _c_a_l_l_s _w_i_t_h _P_P_P This section describes setting up ppp in a server role. When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LANs subnet, and use the com mand enable proxy in your ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file (this file used to be called /etc/sysconfig) contains the following: gateway_enable=YES _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._1 _W_h_i_c_h _g_e_t_t_y_? _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _f_o_r _D_i_a_l_u_p _S_e_r_v_i_c_e_s (section 14.3, page 277) provides a good description on enabling dialup services using getty. An alternative to getty is mgetty13 , a smarter version of getty designed with dialup lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively _t_a_l_k_s to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem won't answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to _M_g_e_t_t_y _a_n_d _A_u_t_o_P_P_P (section 15.1.5.3.7.1, page 305) for more informa tion on mgetty. _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._2 _P_P_P _p_e_r_m_i_s_s_i_o_n_s PPP must normally be run as user id 0. If however you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configu ration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. ____________________ 13. FreeBSD Handbook 303 _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._3 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _a _P_P_P _s_h_e_l_l _f_o_r _d_y_n_a_m_i_c_-_I_P _u_s_e_r_s Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: # ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the _s_h_e_l_l for all your dialup ppp users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds. (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw) pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._4 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _a _P_P_P _s_h_e_l_l _f_o_r _s_t_a_t_i_c_-_I_P _u_s_e_r_s Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: # ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred # ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam # ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above. (ie. mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). FreeBSD Handbook 304 _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._5 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _p_p_p_._c_o_n_f _f_o_r _d_y_n_a_m_i_c_-_I_P _u_s_e_r_s The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy Note the indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP from your pool of ip address for dynamic users. _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._6 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _p_p_p_._c_o_n_f _f_o_r _s_t_a_t_i_c_-_I_P _u_s_e_r_s Along with the contents of the sample /etc/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR FreeBSD Handbook 305 _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._7 _M_o_r_e _o_n _m_g_e_t_t_y_, _A_u_t_o_P_P_P_, _a_n_d _M_S _e_x_t_e_n_s_i_o_n_s _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._7_._1 _M_g_e_t_t_y _a_n_d _A_u_t_o_P_P_P " Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later) Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the follow ing in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connec tions. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap Now create a single configuration entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf that will work for all of your incoming calls: pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the enable passwdauth option to authenticate users via pap from the /etc/passwordd file. If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /etc/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. _1_5_._1_._5_._3_._7_._2 _M_S _e_x_t_e_n_t_i_o_n_s It is possible to configure ppp to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with ppp version 1.X, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf: FreeBSD Handbook 306 enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 or for ppp version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the ``set dns'' line is omited, ppp will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. _1_5_._1_._5_._4 _P_A_P _a_n_d _C_H_A_P _a_u_t_h_e_n_t_i_c_a_t_i_o_n " Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connec tion is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to "eavesdrop". Referring back to the _P_P_P _a_n_d _S_t_a_t_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s (section 15.1.5.1, page 298) or _P_P_P _a_n_d _D_y_n_a_m_i_c _I_P _a_d_d_r_e_s_s_e_s (section 15.1.5.2, page 300) sections, the fol lowing alterations must be made: 7 set login ..... 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your "set login" string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. FreeBSD Handbook 307 Line 13: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. _1_5_._1_._5_._5 _C_h_a_n_g_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _p_p_p _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _o_n _t_h_e _f_l_y It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the back ground, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell ppp to listen to the specified unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the pppctl(8) program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. _1_5_._1_._6 _F_i_n_a_l _s_y_s_t_e_m _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n " You now have PPP configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file (was /etc/syscon fig). Working from the top down in this file, make sure the ``hostname='' line is set, e.g.: hostname=foo.bar.com If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= FreeBSD Handbook 308 Note, the ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the -alias switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to ``NO'' with the line router_enable=NO (/etc/rc.conf) router=NO (/etc/sysconfig) It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it's started by default) as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the ``sendmail_flags'' line does not include the ``-q'' option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" The upshot of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: # /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a "dfilter" to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type # ppp and then ``dial provider'' to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you haven't created the start_if.tun0 script), type # ppp -auto provider FreeBSD Handbook 309 _1_5_._1_._7 _S_u_m_m_a_r_y To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf (or sysconfig) file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the vipw(8) program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ``ppp -direct direct-server'' or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf (or sysconfig) file. _1_5_._1_._8 _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s This section of the handbook was last updated on Monday Aug 10, 1998 by Brian Somers Thanks to the following for their input, comments & suggestions: Nik Clayton Dirk-Willem van Gulik Peter Childs _1_5_._2 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _K_e_r_n_e_l _P_P_P _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_e_n_n_a_d_y _B_. _S_o_r_o_k_o_p_u_d . FreeBSD Handbook 310 Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: 1. as a "client" , i.e. you want to connect your machine to outside world via PPP serial connection or modem line. 2. as a "server" , i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more then one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software ( preferably kermit ) so you can dial and establish connection with remote host. _1_5_._2_._1 _W_o_r_k_i_n_g _a_s _a _P_P_P _c_l_i_e_n_t I used the following /etc/ppp/options to connect to CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to : defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: 1. Dial to the remote host using kermit ( or other modem program ) enter your user name and password ( or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host ) 2. Exit kermit. ( without hanging up the line ) 3. enter: /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 ( put the appropriate speed and device name ) Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails for some FreeBSD Handbook 311 reasons you can add the "debug" option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is kermit script that dials and makes all necessary autho rization on the remote host. ( Example of such script is attached to the end of this document ) Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check if PPP is still running (/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest): FreeBSD Handbook 312 #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 Hangs up modem line (/etc/ppp/kermit.hup): set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _R_o_b_e_r_t _H_u_f_f . The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: FreeBSD Handbook 313 /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to : defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: (This should actually go into a single line.) ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: TIMEOUT 5 sword: Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is pppd. _T_h_i_s _s_a_m_p_l_e _b_a_s_e_d _p_r_i_m_a_r_i_l_y _o_n _i_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_i_o_n _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_d _b_y_: _T_r_e_v _R_o_y_d_h_o_u_s_e _<_T_r_e_v_._R_o_y_d_h_o_u_s_e_@_f_4_0_1_._n_7_1_1_._z_3_._f_i_d_o_n_e_t_._o_r_g_> _a_n_d _u_s_e_d _b_y _p_e_r_m_i_s_s_i_o_n_. _1_5_._2_._2 _W_o_r_k_i_n_g _a_s _a _P_P_P _s_e_r_v_e_r /etc/ppp/options: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line Following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable ppp server on your machine FreeBSD Handbook 314 #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop ppp server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans Following kermit script will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans): FreeBSD Handbook 315 set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit This /etc/ppp/kermit.dial script is used for dialing and authorizing on remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and pass word in this script , also you will need to change input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. FreeBSD Handbook 316 ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter FreeBSD Handbook 317 :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 FreeBSD Handbook 318 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: _1_5_._3 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _a _S_L_I_P _C_l_i_e_n_t _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i 8 Aug 1995. The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a sym bolic link /dev/modem -> cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! (Note that /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc.) Make sure you have pseudo-device sl 1 in your kernel's config file. It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this will not be a problem unless you deleted it. _1_5_._3_._1 _T_h_i_n_g_s _y_o_u _h_a_v_e _t_o _d_o _o_n_l_y _o_n_c_e 1. Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 By the way, silvia is the name of the car that I had when I was back in Japan (it is called 2?0SX here in U.S.). 2. Make sure you have "hosts" before "bind" in your /etc/host.conf. Other wise, funny things may happen. 3. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf. Note that you should edit the file /etc/sysconfig instead if you are running FreeBSD previous to version 2.2.2. 1. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: FreeBSD Handbook 319 hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. 2. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces="lo0 sl0" 3. Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" 4. Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter=NO to: defaultrouter=slip-gateway 4. Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. 5. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that does not have a password). Use passwd, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/mas ter.passwd files! 6. Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. _1_5_._3_._2 _M_a_k_i_n_g _a _S_L_I_P _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n 1. Dial up, type "slip" at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. I use kermit, FreeBSD Handbook 320 with a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a (of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours). Then you can just type "slip" from the kermit prompt to get connected. NNoottee: leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. I am just too lazy. 2. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by "z") and as root, type slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem if you are able to "ping" hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try "-a" instead of "-c" as an argument to slattach. _1_5_._3_._3 _H_o_w _t_o _s_h_u_t_d_o_w_n _t_h_e _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n Type "kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid`" (as root) to kill slattach. Then go back to kermit ("fg" if you suspended it) and exit from it ("q"). The slattach man page says you have to use "ifconfig sl0 down" to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. ("ifcon fig sl0" reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. _1_5_._3_._4 _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using "-c" or "-a" in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person) FreeBSD Handbook 321 Using "s10" instead of "sl0" (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try "ifconfig sl0" to see your interface status. I get: silvia# ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10 inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the routing table, in case you get the "no route to host" messages from ping. Mine looks like: silvia# netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) (this is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). _1_5_._4 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _a _S_L_I_P _S_e_r_v_e_r _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _G_u_y _H_e_l_m_e_r . v1.0, 15 May 1995. This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. This guide was originally written for SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD 1.x system. It has been modified to reflect changes in the pathnames and the removal of the SLIP interface compression flags in early versions of FreeBSD 2.X, which appear to be the only major changes between FreeBSD versions. If you do encounter mistakes in this document, please email the author with enough FreeBSD Handbook 322 information to help correct the problem. _1_5_._4_._1 _P_r_e_r_e_q_u_i_s_i_t_e_s This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's _T_C_P_/_I_P _N_e_t_w_o_r_k _A_d_m_i_n_i_s_t_r_a_t_i_o_n published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.freebsd.org/; otherwise, check the place where you found this document for a document named dialup.txt or something similar. You may also want to check the manual pages for sio(4) for information on the serial port device driver and ttys(5), gettytab(5), getty(8), & init(8) for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps stty(1) for information on setting serial port parameters [such as clo cal for directly-connected serial interfaces]. _1_5_._4_._2 _Q_u_i_c_k _O_v_e_r_v_i_e_w In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. _1_5_._4_._2_._1 _A_n _E_x_a_m_p_l_e _o_f _a _S_L_I_P _S_e_r_v_e_r _L_o_g_i_n For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/mas ter.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP: /usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin and, when Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp FreeBSD Handbook 323 If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If some thing goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the man ual pages for syslogd(8) and syslog.conf(5), and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples -- let us dive into setting up the system. _1_5_._4_._3 _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are ``down''.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFC's 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file (called /etc/sysconfig in FreeBSD releases prior to 2.2.2) and change the setting of the ggaatteewwaayy variable to YES. If you have an older system which predates even the /etc/sysconfig file, then add the following com mand: sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding = 1 to your /etc/rc.local file. You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 FreeBSD Handbook 324 which is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the ker nel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connec tions that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _K_e_r_n_e_l (section 5., page 80) for help in reconfiguring your kernel. _1_5_._4_._4 _S_l_i_p_l_o_g_i_n _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see sliplogin(8) for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. _1_5_._4_._4_._1 _s_l_i_p_._h_o_s_t_s _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, sepa rated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and I believe the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: ----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts ----- # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts ------ At the end of the line is one or more of the options. normal - no header compression compress - compress headers autocomp - compress headers if the remote end allows it noicmp - disable ICMP packets (so any ``ping'' packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) FreeBSD Handbook 325 Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options normal, compress, autocomp, and noicmp had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use ``proxy ARP'' on your SLIP server (it is not ``true'' proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the _s_l_i_p_s_:_p_r_e_r_e_q_s (section 15.4.1, page 322) section and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will prob ably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. Otherwise, if you will use the ``proxy ARP'' method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use arp(8) to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. _1_5_._4_._4_._2 _s_l_i_p_._l_o_g_i_n _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: ----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.login ----- #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.login ----- This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the ``proxy ARP'' method (instead of using a sepa rate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: FreeBSD Handbook 326 ----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.login for "proxy ARP" ----- #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.login for "proxy ARP" ----- The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, cre ates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your ``proxy ARP'' will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ which indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a -- the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single- digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that arp(8) desires; see the manual page on arp(8) for complete information on usage. Note that when you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the ``execute'' bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. _1_5_._4_._4_._3 _s_l_i_p_._l_o_g_o_u_t _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing ``proxy ARP''), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: FreeBSD Handbook 327 ----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.logout ----- #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.logout ----- If you are using ``proxy ARP'', you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: ----- begin /etc/sliphome/slip.logout for "proxy ARP" ----- #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 ----- end /etc/sliphome/slip.logout for "proxy ARP" ----- The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the ``proxy ARP'' slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). _1_5_._4_._5 _R_o_u_t_i_n_g _C_o_n_s_i_d_e_r_a_t_i_o_n_s If you are not using the ``proxy ARP'' method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. _1_5_._4_._5_._1 _S_t_a_t_i_c _R_o_u_t_e_s Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple- router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, FreeBSD Handbook 328 but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static- route-based routing to work. _1_5_._4_._5_._2 _R_u_n_n_i_n_g _g_a_t_e_d An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the _p_o_r_t_s _c_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (section 4., page 25) or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous ftp site; I believe the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes support for FreeBSD ``out-of-the-box''. Complete information and documentation on gated is avail able on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: FreeBSD Handbook 329 ----- begin sample /etc/gated.conf for gated version 3.5Alpha5 ----- # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; ----- end sample /etc/gated.conf ----- The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's FreeBSD Handbook 330 command-line parameters. _1_5_._4_._6 _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s Thanks to these people for comments and advice regarding this tutorial: Wilko Bulte " Piero Serini _1_6_. _A_d_v_a_n_c_e_d _N_e_t_w_o_r_k_i_n_g _1_6_._1 _G_a_t_e_w_a_y_s _a_n_d _R_o_u_t_e_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _C_o_r_a_n_t_h _G_r_y_p_h_o_n . 6 October 1995. For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is called Routing. A ``route'' is a defined pair of addresses: a ddeessttiinnaattiioonn and a ggaatteewwaayy. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this _d_e_s_t_i_n_a_t_i_o_n, send along through this _g_a_t_e_w_a_y. There are three types of destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and ``default''. The ``default route'' is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called ``links''), and ethernet hardware addresses. _1_6_._1_._1 _A_n _e_x_a_m_p_l_e To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example which is the output of the command netstat -r: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this des tination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started anyway. FreeBSD Handbook 331 The next thing that stands out are the ``0:e0:...'' addresses. These are ether net hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first ether net card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an ifconfig alias (see the section of ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has dif ferent attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U UUpp:: The route is active. H HHoosstt:: The route destination is a single host. G GGaatteewwaayy:: Send anything for this destination on to this remote sys tem, which will figure out from there where to send it. S SSttaattiicc:: This route was configured manually, not automatically gen erated by the system. C CClloonnee:: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we FreeBSD Handbook 332 connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WWaassCClloonneedd Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L LLiinnkk:: Route involves references to ethernet hardware. _1_6_._1_._2 _D_e_f_a_u_l_t _r_o_u_t_e_s When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the ddeeffaauulltt route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a ``c'' in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is func tioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site, with the formed being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP has a local network at their site, which has, among other things, the server where you connect and a hard ware device (T1-GW) attached to the ISP's Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: host default gateway interface ---- --------------- --------- Local2 Local1 ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP A common question is ``Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is connected to?''. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local net work for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address ``...1'' as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local FreeBSD Handbook 333 class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Local2 (10.20.30.2) --> Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --> T1-GW (10.9.9.1) _1_6_._1_._3 _D_u_a_l _h_o_m_e_d _h_o_s_t_s There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual- homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine as two ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one ethernet card, and be using ifconfig aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate eth ernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This con figuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. _1_6_._1_._4 _R_o_u_t_i_n_g _p_r_o_p_a_g_a_t_i_o_n We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The ``Backbone'' are the main trunk lines that carry Inter net traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. FreeBSD Handbook 334 _1_6_._1_._5 _T_r_o_u_b_l_e_s_h_o_o_t_i_n_g Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the traceroute(8) command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (ie. ping(8) fails). The traceroute(8) command is run with the name of the remote host you are try ing to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for traceroute(8). _1_6_._2 _N_F_S _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_h_n _L_i_n_d . Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not spe cific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be pro cessed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. Though the "correct" solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Eth ernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the SERVER, include the option "-w=1024" on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the CLIENT, then mount the NFS file system with the option "-r=1024". These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the "-o" parameter of the mount com mand for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make CERTAIN that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, "fastws" is the host (interface) name of a high-per formance workstation, and "freebox" is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, "/sharedfs" will be the exported NFS filesystem (see "man exports"), and "/project" will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as "hard" or "soft" and "bg" may be desirable in your application. FreeBSD Handbook 335 Examples for the FreeBSD system ("freebox") as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on freebox: mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: free box:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on fastws: mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a "block" size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS "block" gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and ACKNOWLEDGED as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS "units". When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmit ted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. _1_6_._3 _D_i_s_k_l_e_s_s _O_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _M_a_r_t_i_n _R_e_n_t_e_r_s . netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now pos sible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and com patibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) _1_6_._3_._1 _S_e_t_u_p _I_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_i_o_n_s 1. Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: FreeBSD Handbook 336 HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 doesn't work) Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) 2. Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: 3. Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftp boot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help - print help list ip - print/set client's IP address server - print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask - print/set netmask hostname - print/set hostname kernel - print/set kernel name rootfs - print/set root filesystem swapfs - print/set swap filesystem swapsize - set diskless swapsize in Kbytes diskboot - boot from disk autoboot - continue boot process trans - turn transceiver on|off flags [bcdhsv] - set boot flags A typical completely diskless cfg file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A cfg file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain FreeBSD Handbook 337 4. Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applica ble) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain 5. If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the argu ments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP addr, eg: # dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: # chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 6. Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press con trol-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a "sh ./MAKEDEV all" from the client to fix this. 7. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file FreeBSD Handbook 338 _1_6_._3_._2 _U_s_i_n_g _S_h_a_r_e_d _/ _a_n_d _/_u_s_r _f_i_l_e_s_y_s_t_e_m_s At present there isn't an officially sanctioned way of doing this, although I have been using a shared /usr filesystem and individual / filesystems for each client. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please let me and/or the FreeBSD core team know. _1_6_._3_._3 _C_o_m_p_i_l_i_n_g _n_e_t_b_o_o_t _f_o_r _s_p_e_c_i_f_i_c _s_e_t_u_p_s Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configura tion in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. _1_6_._4 _I_S_D_N _L_a_s_t _m_o_d_i_f_i_e_d _b_y _B_i_l_l _L_l_o_y_d . A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page14 . A quick simple roadmap to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe I suggest you investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dialup non-dedicated basis, I suggest you look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two lans together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, I suggest you consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. _1_6_._4_._1 _I_S_D_N _C_a_r_d_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _H_e_l_l_m_u_t_h _M_i_c_h_a_e_l_i_s . This section is really only relevant to ISDN users in countries where the DSS1/Q.931 ISDN standard is supported. Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD 2.2.x and up by the isdn4bsd driver package. It is still under development but the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe. The latest isdn4bsd version is available from ftp://isdn4bsd@ftp.consol.de/pub15 The main isdn4bsd ftp site (You have to log ____________________ 14. 15. FreeBSD Handbook 339 in as user isdn4bsd , give your mail address as the password and change to the 'pub' directory. Anonymous ftp as user 'ftp' or 'anonymous' will NOT (!) give the desired result ! ). Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP. A telephone answering machine application is also available. Many ISDN PC cards are supported, mostly the ones with a Siemens ISDN chipset (ISAC/HSCX), support for other chipsets (from Motorola, Cologne Chip Designs) is currently under development. For an up-to-date list of supported cards, please have a look at the README16 file. In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with hm@kts.org17 . A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the list, send mail to majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG18 and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn In the body of your message. _1_6_._4_._2 _I_S_D_N _T_e_r_m_i_n_a_l _A_d_a_p_t_e_r_s Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and through put speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure _P_P_P (section 15.2, page 309) exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most stan dalone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. ____________________ 16. 17. 18. FreeBSD Handbook 340 If you want maximum stability, use the kernel _P_P_P (section 15.2, page 309) option, not the user-land _i_i_j_P_P_P (section 15.1, page 294). The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the _s_e_r_i_a_l _p_o_r_t_s (section 12.4.3.1, page 205) section in the handbook for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a standalone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA vs standalone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives19 for the complete discussion. _1_6_._4_._3 _S_t_a_n_d_a_l_o_n_e _I_S_D_N _B_r_i_d_g_e_s_/_R_o_u_t_e_r_s ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operat ing system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technol ogy, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, I will use router and bridge interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network(or card), and manages its own connec tion to the other bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other protocols built in. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it ____________________ 19. FreeBSD Handbook 341 will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, I recommend that you discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two lan segments together, ie: home lan to the office lan, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. _B_r_a_n_c_h _o_f_f_i_c_e _o_r _H_o_m_e _n_e_t_w_o_r_k Network is 10 Base T Ethernet. Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Standalone router | ISDN BRI line If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the standalone router directly. _H_e_a_d _o_f_f_i_c_e _o_r _o_t_h_e_r _l_a_n Network is Twisted Pair Ethernet. -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Standalone router | ISDN BRI line One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 SEPARATE INDEPENDENT PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the SAME time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific(expensive) models that FreeBSD Handbook 342 have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc. This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an dedicated internet ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbs) to the internet, as well as a use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dialin, dialout or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. _1_7_. _E_l_e_c_t_r_o_n_i_c _M_a_i_l _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _B_i_l_l _L_l_o_y_d . Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many _S_y_s_t_e_m _A_d_m_i_n_i_s_t_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 26., page 492) books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. Some parts of E-Mail configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own own DNS server check out /etc/namedb and ' man -k named ' for more information. _1_7_._1 _B_a_s_i_c _I_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_i_o_n These are the major programs involved in an E-Mail exchange. A mailhost is a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving all email for your host, and possibly your network. _1_7_._1_._1 _U_s_e_r _p_r_o_g_r_a_m This is a program like elm, pine, mail , or something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. This program will simply pass off all e-mail transactions to the local mailhost , either by calling sendmail or delivering it over TCP. _1_7_._1_._2 _M_a_i_l_h_o_s_t _S_e_r_v_e_r _D_a_e_m_o_n Usually this program is sendmail or smail running in the background. Turn it off or change the command line options in /etc/rc.conf (or, prior to FreeBSD 2.2.2, /etc/sysconfig). It is best to leave it on, unless you have a specific reason to want it off. Example: You are building a _F_i_r_e_w_a_l_l (section 6.4, page 114). You should be aware that sendmail is a potential weak link in a secure site. Some versions of sendmail have known security problems. sseennddmmaaiill does two jobs. It looks after delivering and receiving mail. If sendmail needs to deliver mail off your site it will look up in the DNS to determine the actual host that will receive mail for the destination. FreeBSD Handbook 343 If it is acting as a delivery agent sendmail will take the message from the local queue and deliver it across the Internet to another sendmail on the receivers computer. _1_7_._1_._3 _D_N_S _- _N_a_m_e _S_e_r_v_i_c_e The Domain Name System and its daemon named , contain the database mapping hostname to IP address, and hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an "A" record. The "MX" record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have a "MX" record mail for your hostname, the mail will be delivered to your host directly. Unless you are running your own DNS server, you will not be able to change any information in the DNS yourself. If you are using an Internet Provider, speak to them. _1_7_._1_._4 _P_O_P _S_e_r_v_e_r_s This program gets the mail from your mailbox and gives it to your browser. If you want to run a POP server on your computer, you will need to do 2 things. Get pop software from the Ports collection20 that can be found in //uussrr//ppoorrttss or packages collection. This handbook section has a complete reference on the _P_o_r_t_s (section 4., page 25) system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP server. The pop program will have instructions with it. Read them. _1_7_._2 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _1_7_._2_._1 _B_a_s_i_c As your FreeBSD system comes "out of the box"[TM], you should be able to send E-mail to external hosts as long as you have /etc/resolv.conf setup or are running a name server. If you want to have mail for your host delivered to your specific host,there are two methods: - Run a name server ( mmaann --kk nnaammeedd ) and have your own domain smallminingco.com - Get mail delivered to the current DNS name for your host. Ie: dorm6.ahouse.school.edu No matter what option you choose, to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must be a full Internet host. You must have a permanent IP address. IE: NO dynamic PPP. If you are behind a firewall, the firewall must be passing on smtp traffic to you. From /etc/services smtp 25/tcp mail #Simple Mail Transfer ____________________ 20. FreeBSD Handbook 344 If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you must make sure that the DNS MX entry points to your host address, or there is no MX entry for your DNS name. Try this newbsdbox# hostname newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox# host newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox.freebsd.org has address 204.216.27.xx If that is all that comes out for your machine, mail directory to rroooott@@nneewwbbssdd bbooxx..ffrreeeebbssdd..oorrgg will work no problems. If instead, you have this newbsdbox# host newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.xx newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by freefall.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host directly will end up on freefall, under the same username. This information is setup in your domain name server. This should be the same host that is listed as your primary nameserver in /etc/resolv.conf The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX entry exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of the Address record. The MX entry for freefall.freebsd.org at one time. freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall HINFO Pentium FreeBSD freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com freefall A 204.216.27.xx freefall CNAME www.FreeBSD.org Freefall has many MX entries. The lowest MX number gets the mail in the end. The others will queue mail temporarily, if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate connections to the Internet, to be most useful. An Internet Provider or other friendly site can provide this service. dig, nslookup, and host are your friends. _1_7_._2_._2 _M_a_i_l _f_o_r _y_o_u_r _D_o_m_a_i_n _(_N_e_t_w_o_r_k_)_. To setup up a network mailhost, you need to direct the mail from arriving at all the workstations. In other words, you want to hijack all mail for *.small miningco.com and divert it to one machine, your mailhost. FreeBSD Handbook 345 The network users on their workstations will most likely pick up their mail over POP or telnet. A user account with the SAME USERNAME should exist on both machines. Please use adduser to do this as required. If you set the _s_h_e_l_l to /nonexistent the user will not be allowed to login. The mailhost that you will be using must be designated the Mail eXchange for each workstation. This must be arranged in DNS (ie BIND, named). Please refer to a Networking book for in-depth information. You basically need to add these lines in your DNS server. pc24.smallminingco.com A xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx ; Workstation ip MX 10 smtp.smallminingco.com ; Your mailhost You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you do not want to run a DNS server, get somebody else like your Internet Provider to do it. This will redirect mail for the workstation to the Mail eXchange host. It does not matter what machine the A record points to, the mail will be sent to the MX host. This feature is used to implement Virtual E-Mail Hosting. Example I have a customer with domain foo.bar and I want all mail for foo.bar to be sent to my machine smtp.smalliap.com. You must make an entry in your DNS server like: foo.bar MX 10 smtp.smalliap.com ; your mailhost The A record is not needed if you only want E-Mail for the domain. IE: Don't expect ping foo.bar to work unless an Address record for foo.bar exists as well. On the mailhost that actually accepts mail for final delivery to a mailbox, sendmail must be told what hosts it will be accepting mail for. Add pc24.smallminingco.com to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEA TURE(use_cw_file)), or add a "Cw myhost.smalliap.com" line to /etc/sendmail.cf If you plan on doing anything serious with sendmail you should install the sendmail source. The source has plenty of documentation with it. You will find information on getting sendmail source from _t_h_e _U_U_C_P _i_n_f_o_r_m_a_t_i_o_n (section 17.2.3, page 345). _1_7_._2_._3 _S_e_t_t_i_n_g _u_p _U_U_C_P_. _S_t_o_l_e_n _f_r_o_m _t_h_e _F_A_Q_. FreeBSD Handbook 346 The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is suited for sites that connect directly to the Internet. Sites that wish to exchange their mail via UUCP must install another sendmail configuration file. Tweaking /etc/sendmail.cf manually is considered something for purists. Send mail version 8 comes with a new approach of generating config files via some m4 preprocessing, where the actual hand-crafted configuration is on a higher abstraction level. You should use the configuration files under /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf If you did not install your system with full sources, the sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate source distribution tarball just for you. Assuming you have your CD-ROM mounted, do: cd /usr/src tar -xvzf /cdrom/dists/src/ssmailcf.aa Do not panic, this is only a few hundred kilobytes in size. The file README in the cf directory can serve as a basic introduction to m4 configuration. For UUCP delivery, you are best advised to use the _m_a_i_l_e_r_t_a_b_l_e feature. This constitutes a database that sendmail can use to base its routing decision upon. First, you have to create your .mc file. The directory /usr/src/usr.sbin/send mail/cf/cf is the home of these files. Look around, there are already a few examples. Assuming you have named your file foo.mc, all you need to do in order to convert it into a valid sendmail.cf is: cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf make foo.cf If you don't have a /usr/obj hiearchy, then: cp foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cf Otherwise: cp /usr/obj/`pwd`/foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cf A typical .mc file might look like: FreeBSD Handbook 347 include(`../m4/cf.m4') VERSIONID(`Your version number') OSTYPE(bsd4.4) FEATURE(nodns) FEATURE(nocanonify) FEATURE(mailertable) define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay) define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000) MAILER(local) MAILER(smtp) MAILER(uucp) Cw your.alias.host.name Cw youruucpnodename.UUCP The _n_o_d_n_s and _n_o_c_a_n_o_n_i_f_y features will prevent any usage of the DNS during mail delivery. The _U_U_C_P___R_E_L_A_Y clause is needed for bizarre reasons, do not ask. Simply put an Internet hostname there that is able to handle .UUCP pseudo- domain addresses; most likely, you will enter the mail relay of your ISP there. Once you have this, you need this file called /etc/mailertable. A typical example of this gender again: # # makemap hash /etc/mailertable.db < /etc/mailertable # horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus .interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus .heep.sax.de smtp8:%1 horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus . uucp-dom:sax As you can see, this is part of a real-life file. The first three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed mail should not be sent out to the default route, but instead to some UUCP neighbor in order to ``shortcut'' the delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to allow for a ``uucp-neighbor!recipient'' override of the default rules. The last line is always a single dot, matching everything else, with UUCP delivery to a UUCP neighbor that serves as your universal mail gateway to the world. All of the node names behind the uucp-dom: keyword must be valid UUCP neighbors, as you can verify using the command uuname. As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a DBM database file before being usable, the command line to accomplish this is best placed as a comment at the top of the mailertable. You always have to execute this command each time you change your mailertable. Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular mail routing would FreeBSD Handbook 348 work, remember the -bt option to sendmail. It starts sendmail in _a_d_d_r_e_s_s _t_e_s_t _m_o_d_e; simply enter ``0 '', followed by the address you wish to test for the mail routing. The last line tells you the used internal mail agent, the desti nation host this agent will be called with, and the (possibly translated) address. Leave this mode by typing Control-D. j@uriah 191% sendmail -bt ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked) Enter
> 0 foo@interface-business.de rewrite: ruleset 0 input: foo @ interface-business . de ... rewrite: ruleset 0 returns: $# uucp-dom $@ if-bus $: foo \ < @ interface-business . de > > ^D j@uriah 192% _1_7_._3 _F_A_Q _M_i_g_r_a_t_i_o_n _f_r_o_m _F_A_Q_. _1_7_._3_._1 _W_h_y _d_o _I _h_a_v_e _t_o _u_s_e _t_h_e _F_Q_D_N _f_o_r _h_o_s_t_s _o_n _m_y _s_i_t_e_? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called ``mum ble'' in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-quali fied domain name, ``mumble.bar.edu'', instead of just ``mumble''. Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current ver sion of _B_I_N_D that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was con sidered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the ``boundary between local and public administration'', as RFC 1535 calls it. _1_7_._3_._2 _S_e_n_d_m_a_i_l _s_a_y_s _`_`_m_a_i_l _l_o_o_p_s _b_a_c_k _t_o _m_y_s_e_l_f_'_' This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows:- FreeBSD Handbook 349 * I am getting "Local configuration error" messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 ... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add "Cw domain.net" to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any ``tweaking'' of your mail setup. _1_7_._3_._3 _H_o_w _c_a_n _I _d_o _E_-_M_a_i_l _w_i_t_h _a _d_i_a_l_u_p _P_P_P _h_o_s_t_? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two way to do this. The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX services for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient ( add ``Cw bigco.com'' in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. Sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, ie your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every (sendmail_flags = "-bd -q15m" in /etc/rc.conf ) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might wait to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. FreeBSD Handbook 350 A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the freebsd-isp mailing list. > we provide the secondary mx for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary mx (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary mx. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the 'privacy flags' section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for "hosts", so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine "customer.com" as well as "hostname.customer.com" in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for "customer.com". Part IV FreeBSD Handbook 351 Advanced topics _1_8_. _T_h_e _C_u_t_t_i_n_g _E_d_g_e_: _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t _a_n_d _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_s_t_a_b_l_e FreeBSD is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your sys tem in sync with the latest developments. Be warned: the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. _1_8_._1 _S_t_a_y_i_n_g _C_u_r_r_e_n_t _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . _W_h_a_t _i_s _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t_? FreeBSD-current is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for FreeBSD. These include work in progress, experi mental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from FreeBSD-current sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not FreeBSD-current sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! _W_h_o _n_e_e_d_s _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t_? FreeBSD-current is aimed at 3 primary interest groups: 1. Members of the FreeBSD group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping `current' is an absolute requirement. 2. Members of the FreeBSD group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that FreeBSD- current remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of FreeBSD. 3. Peripheral members of the FreeBSD (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for refer ence purposes (e.g. for _r_e_a_d_i_n_g, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. FreeBSD Handbook 352 _W_h_a_t _i_s _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t _N_O_T_? 1. A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. 2. A quick way of getting bug fixes. 3. In any way ``officially supported'' by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 ``legiti mate'' FreeBSD-current categories, but we simply _d_o _n_o_t _h_a_v_e _t_h_e _t_i_m_e to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing FreeBSD if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day _a_n_d actually work on FreeBSD! I am sure that, if given the choice between having us answer lots of questions or continuing to improve FreeBSD, most of you would vote for us improving it. _U_s_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t 1. Join the FreeBSD-current mailing list and the FreeBSD CVS commit message mailing list . This is not just a good idea, it is _e_s_s_e_n_t_i_a_l. If you are not on the _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t mailing list, you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of prob lems that others have already found and solved. Even more impor tantly, you will miss out on important bulletins which may be criti cal to your system's continued health. The _c_v_s_-_a_l_l mailing list also allows you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made, along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects, and is another good mailing list to sub scribe to. To join these lists, send mail to and spec ify: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all FreeBSD Handbook 353 In the body of your message. Optionally, you can also say `help' and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsub scribe to the various other mailing lists we support. 2. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. You can do this in one of three ways: 1. Use the _C_T_M (section 18.3.2, page 360) facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. 2. Use the _c_v_s_u_p (section 18.3.3, page 364) program with this supfile21 . This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type: pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz 3. Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-current is always "exported" on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-cur rent We also use `wu-ftpd' which allows compressed/tar'd grab bing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar.Z and it will get the whole directory for you as a compressed tar file. Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then ____________________ 21. FreeBSD Handbook 354 grab _a_l_l of current, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates else where, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling current, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a `_m_a_k_e _w_o_r_l_d (section 18.4, page 376)' the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the FreeBSD-current mailing list will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. 3. Be active! If you are running FreeBSD-current, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! _1_8_._2 _S_t_a_y_i_n_g _S_t_a_b_l_e _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . _W_h_a_t _i_s _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_s_t_a_b_l_e_? FreeBSD-stable is our development branch for a more low-key and conserva tive set of changes intended for our next mainstream release. Changes of an experimental or untested nature do not go into this branch (see _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t (section 18.1, page 351)). _W_h_o _n_e_e_d_s _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_s_t_a_b_l_e_? If you are a commercial user or someone who puts maximum stability of their FreeBSD system before all other concerns, you should consider track ing _s_t_a_b_l_e. This is especially true if you have installed the most recent release (2.2.8-RELEASE22 at the time of this writing) since the _s_t_a_b_l_e branch is effectively a bug-fix stream relative to the previous release. Please note that the _s_t_a_b_l_e tree endeavors, above all, to be fully compil able and stable at all times, but we do occasionally make mistakes (these are still active sources with quickly-transmitted updates, after all). We also do our best to thoroughly test fixes in _c_u_r_r_e_n_t before bringing them into _s_t_a_b_l_e, but sometimes our tests fail to catch every case. If some thing breaks for you in _s_t_a_b_l_e, please let us know _i_m_m_e_d_i_a_t_e_l_y_! (see next section). _G_e_t_t_i_n_g _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_s_t_a_b_l_e ____________________ 22. FreeBSD Handbook 355 1. Join the FreeBSD-stable mailing list . This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in _s_t_a_b_l_e or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are con templating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. The _c_v_s_-_a_l_l mailing list also allows you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made, along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects, and is another good mailing list to sub scribe to. To join these lists, send mail to and spec ify: subscribe freebsd-stable subscribe cvs-all In the body of your message. Optionally, you can also say `help' and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsub scribe to the various other mailing lists we support. 2. If you're installing a new system and want it to be as -stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated branch snapshot from ftp://releng22.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD23 and install it like any other release. 3. If you're already running a previous release of 2.2 and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. This can be done in one of three ways: 1. 2. Use the _C_T_M (section 18.3.2, page 360) facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. 3. Use the _c_v_s_u_p (section 18.3.3, page 364) program with this supfile24 . This is the second most recommended method, since ____________________ 23. 24. FreeBSD Handbook 356 it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type: pkg_add -f ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz 4. Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-stable is always "exported" on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-sta ble We also use `wu-ftpd' which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar.Z and it will get the whole directory for you as a compressed tar file. 4. Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. 5. Before compiling stable, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a `_m_a_k_e _w_o_r_l_d (section 18.4, page 376)' the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the FreeBSD-stable mailing list will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. _1_8_._3 _S_y_n_c_h_r_o_n_i_z_i_n_g _S_o_u_r_c_e _T_r_e_e_s _o_v_e_r _t_h_e _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up- to-date with any given area of the FreeBSD project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are _A_n_o_n_y_m_o_u_s _C_V_S (section 18.3.1, page 357), _C_V_S_u_p (section 18.3.3, page 364) and _C_T_M (sec tion 18.3.2, page 360). FreeBSD Handbook 357 AAnnoonnyymmoouuss CCVVSS and CCVVSSuupp use the _p_u_l_l model of updating sources. In the case of CVSup, the user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up to date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directo ries that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more simplistic than CVSup in that it's just an extention to cvs(1) which allows it to pull changes directly from a remote CVS repository. CVSup can do this far more efficiently, but anoncvs is easier to use. CCTTMM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive or otherwise _p_u_l_l changes across. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes being com pressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received, these "CTM deltas" can then be handed to the ctm_rmail(1) utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup or Anonymous CVS, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a _p_u_s_h rather than a _p_u_l_l model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this and anoncvs is probably more likely to become seriously con fused than anything else. If you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS "base delta") and rebuild it all with CTM or, with anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and re-sync. For more information on Anonymous CVS, CTM and CVSup, please see one of the following sections: _1_8_._3_._1 _A_n_o_n_y_m_o_u_s _C_V_S _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d _1_8_._3_._1_._1 _I_n_t_r_o_d_u_c_t_i_o_n Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known, _a_n_o_n_c_v_s) is a feature provided by the CVS utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations against one of the FreeBSD pro ject's official anoncvs servers. To use it, one simply sets the CCVVSSRROOOOTT envi ronment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server and then uses the cvs(1) command to access it like any local repository. While it can also be said that the _C_V_S_u_p (section 18.3.3, page 364) and anoncvs services both perform essentially the same function, there are various trade- offs which can influence the user's choice of synchronization methods. In a nutshell, CVSup is much more efficient in its usage of network resources and is by far the most technically sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use CVSup, a special client must first be installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and then only in the fairly large chunks which CVSup calls FreeBSD Handbook 358 _c_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n_s. Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used to examine anything from an individual file to a specific program (like _l_s or _g_r_e_p) by referencing the CVS module name. Of course, anoncvs is also only good for read-only operations on the CVS reposi tory, so if it's your intention to support local development in one repository shared with the FreeBSD project bits then CVSup is really your only option. _1_8_._3_._1_._2 _U_s_i_n_g _A_n_o_n_y_m_o_u_s _C_V_S Configuring cvs(1) to use an Anonymous CVS repository is a simple matter of setting the CCVVSSRROOOOTT environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD pro ject's anoncvs servers. At the time of this writing, the following servers are available: UUSSAA: anoncvs@anoncvs.freebsd.org:/cvs Since CVS allows one to "check out" virtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist :), you need to be familiar with the revision (_-_r) flag to cvs(1) and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a spe cific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in: HEAD Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-current. Also the default when no revision is specified. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.x, also known as FreeBSD-sta ble. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.x, also known as 2.2-sta ble. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_0 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.1.x - this branch is largely obsolete. Not valid for the ports collection. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in: RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. Not valid for the ports collection. FreeBSD Handbook 359 RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.7. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_6_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6.1. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.5. Not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_2_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.0. Not valid for the ports collection. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the _-_D _d_a_t_e flag. See the cvs(1) man page for more details. _1_8_._3_._1_._3 _E_x_a_m_p_l_e_s While it really is recommended that you read the manual page for cvs(1) thor oughly before doing anything, here are some quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous CVS: Checking out something from -current (ls(1)) and deleting it again: % setenv CVSROOT anoncvs@anoncvs.freebsd.org:/cvs % cvs co ls % cvs release -d ls Checking out the version of ls(1) in the 2.2-stable branch: % setenv CVSROOT anoncvs@anoncvs.freebsd.org:/cvs % cvs co -rRELENG_2_2 ls % cvs release -d ls Creating a list of changes (as unidiffs) to ls(1) between FreeBSD 2.2.2 and FreeBSD 2.2.6: % setenv CVSROOT anoncvs@anoncvs.freebsd.org:/cvs % cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE -rRELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE ls Finding out what other module names can be used: FreeBSD Handbook 360 % setenv CVSROOT anoncvs@anoncvs.freebsd.org:/cvs % cvs co modules % more modules/modules % cvs release -d modules _1_8_._3_._1_._4 _O_t_h_e_r _R_e_s_o_u_r_c_e_s The following additional resources may be helpful in learning CVS: CVS Tutorial25 from Cal Poly. Cyclic Software26 , commercial maintainers of CVS. CVSWeb27 is the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS. _1_8_._3_._2 _C_T_M _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _P_o_u_l_-_H_e_n_n_i_n_g _K_a_m_p . Updated 19-October-1997. CTM is a method for keeping a remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other peo ple may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by. Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the process of creating deltas, so talk to Poul-Henning Kamp for more information should you wish to use CTM for other things. _1_8_._3_._2_._1 _W_h_y _s_h_o_u_l_d _I _u_s_e _C_T_M_? CTM will give you a local copy of the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of ``flavors'' of the tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire cvs tree or just one of the branches, CTM can provide you the information. If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or non-existent TCP/IP con nectivity, or simply wish to have the changes automatically sent to you, CTM was made for you. You will need to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active branches. However, you should consider having them sent by auto matic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a biggie of 100K+ or more coming around. You will also need to make yourself aware of the various caveats related to working directly from the development sources rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true if you choose the ``current'' sources. It is recommended that you read _S_t_a_y_i_n_g _c_u_r_r_e_n_t _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (section 18.1, page 351). ____________________ 25. 26. 27. FreeBSD Handbook 361 _1_8_._3_._2_._2 _W_h_a_t _d_o _I _n_e_e_d _t_o _u_s_e _C_T_M_? You will need two things: The ``CTM'' program and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to ``current'' levels). The CTM program has been part of FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in /usr/src/usr.sbin/CTM if you have a copy of the source online. If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can fetch the current CTM sources directly from: The ``deltas'' you feed CTM can be had two ways, FTP or e-mail. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the following FTP sites support access to CTM: or see section _m_i_r_r_o_r_s (section 25.3, page 487). FTP the relevant directory and fetch the README file, starting from there. If you may wish to get your deltas via email: Send email to to subscribe to one of the CTM distribu tion lists. ``ctm-cvs-cur'' supports the entire cvs tree. ``ctm-src-cur'' sup ports the head of the development branch. ``ctm-src-2_2'' supports the 2.2 release branch, etc. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself using majordomo, send a message first containing the word ``help'' - it will send you back usage instructions.) When you begin receiving your CTM updates in the mail, you may use the ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them. You can actually use the ctm_rmail program directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion. Check the ctm_rmail man page for more details. NNOOTTEE: No matter what method you use to get the CTM deltas, you should subscribe to the ctm-announce@FreeBSD.ORG mailing list. In the future, this will be the only place where announcements concerning the operations of the CTM system will be posted. Send an email to with a single line of ``subscribe ctm-announce'' to get added to the list. _1_8_._3_._2_._3 _S_t_a_r_t_i_n_g _o_f_f _w_i_t_h _C_T_M _f_o_r _t_h_e _f_i_r_s_t _t_i_m_e Before you can start using CTM deltas, you will need to get a to a starting point for the deltas produced subsequently to it. First you should determine what you already have. Everyone should start from an ``Empty'' directory. You must use an initial ``Empty'' delta to start off your CTM supported tree. At some point it is intended that one of these ``starter'' deltas be distributed on the CD for your convenience. This does not currently happen, however. FreeBSD Handbook 362 You can recognize these ``starter'' deltas by the ``X'' appended to the number (src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The designation following the ``X'' cor responds to the origin of your initial ``seed''. ``Empty'' is an empty direc tory. As a rule a base transition from ``Empty'' is producted every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! A few tens of Megabytes of gzip'ed data is common for the ``XEmpty'' deltas. Once you've picked a base delta to start from, you will also need all deltas with higher numbers following it. _1_8_._3_._2_._4 _U_s_i_n_g _C_T_M _i_n _y_o_u_r _d_a_i_l_y _l_i_f_e To apply the deltas, simply say: cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.* CTM understands deltas which have been put through gzip, so you do not need to gunzip them first, this saves disk space. Unless it feels very secure about the entire process, CTM will not touch your tree. To verify a delta you can also use the ``-c'' flag and CTM will not actually touch your tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see if it would apply cleanly to your current tree. There are other options to CTM as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more information. I would also be very happy if somebody could help with the ``user interface'' portions, as I have realized that I cannot make up my mind on what options should do what, how and when... That's really all there is to it. Every time you get a new delta, just run it through CTM to keep your sources up to date. Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again. You just might want to keep them around in case something bad happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using fdwrite to make a copy. _1_8_._3_._2_._5 _K_e_e_p_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _l_o_c_a_l _c_h_a_n_g_e_s As a developer one would like to experiment with and change files in the source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking for the presence of a file foo, it first looks for foo.ctm. If this file exists, CTM will operate on it instead of foo. This behaviour gives us a simple way to maintain local changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the corresponding file names with a .ctm suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the .ctm file up-to-date. _1_8_._3_._2_._6 _O_t_h_e_r _i_n_t_e_r_e_s_t_i_n_g _C_T_M _o_p_t_i_o_n_s FreeBSD Handbook 363 _1_8_._3_._2_._6_._1 _F_i_n_d_i_n_g _o_u_t _e_x_a_c_t_l_y _w_h_a_t _w_o_u_l_d _b_e _t_o_u_c_h_e_d _b_y _a_n _u_p_d_a_t_e You can determine the list of changes that CTM will make on your source reposi tory using the ``-l'' option to CTM. This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid :-). _1_8_._3_._2_._6_._2 _M_a_k_i_n_g _b_a_c_k_u_p_s _b_e_f_o_r_e _u_p_d_a_t_i_n_g Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would be changed by a CTM update. Specifying the ``-B backup-file'' option causes CTM to backup all files that would be touched by a given CTM delta to backup-file. _1_8_._3_._2_._6_._3 _R_e_s_t_r_i_c_t_i_n_g _t_h_e _f_i_l_e_s _t_o_u_c_h_e_d _b_y _a_n _u_p_d_a_t_e Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope of a given CTM update, or may be interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of deltas. You can control the list of files that CTM would operate on by specifying fil tering regular expressions using the ``-e'' and ``-x'' options. For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of lib/libc/Makefile from your col lection of saved CTM deltas, run the commands: cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/ ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.* For every file specified in a CTM delta, the ``-e'' and ``-x'' options are applied in the order given on the command line. The file is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all the ``-e'' and ``-x'' options are applied to it. _1_8_._3_._2_._7 _F_u_t_u_r_e _p_l_a_n_s _f_o_r _C_T_M Tons of them: Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so as to allow detec tion of spoofed CTM updates. Clean up the options to CTM, they became confusing and counter intuitive. The bad news is that I am very busy, so any help in doing this will be most welcome. And do not forget to tell me what you want also... _1_8_._3_._2_._8 _M_i_s_c_e_l_l_a_n_e_o_u_s _s_t_u_f_f All the ``DES infected'' (e.g. export controlled) source is not included. You will get the ``international'' version only. If sufficient interest appears, FreeBSD Handbook 364 we will set up a ``sec-cur'' sequence too. There is a sequence of deltas for the ports collection too, but interest has not been all that high yet. Tell me if you want an email list for that too and we will consider setting it up. _1_8_._3_._2_._9 _T_h_a_n_k_s_! Bruce Evans " for his pointed pen and invaluable comments. Sren Schmidt " for patience. Stephen McKay wrote ctm_[rs]mail, much appreciated. Jordan K. Hubbard " for being so stubborn that I had to make it better. All the users I hope you like it... _1_8_._3_._3 _C_V_S_u_p _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_h_n _P_o_l_s_t_r_a . _1_8_._3_._3_._1 _I_n_t_r_o_d_u_c_t_i_o_n CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are main tained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date. CVSup uses the so-called _p_u_l_l model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis. The term "CVSup", capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client "cvsup" which runs on each user's machine, and the server "cvsupd" which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites. As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to _s_u_p. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose. CVSup is in used in much the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible. _1_8_._3_._3_._2 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_a_t_i_o_n The easiest way to install CVSup if you are running FreeBSD 2.2 or later is to use either the port28 from the FreeBSD _p_o_r_t_s _c_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n (section 4., page 25) FreeBSD Handbook 365 or the corresponding binary package29 , depending on whether you prefer to roll your own or not. If you are running FreeBSD-2.1.6 or 2.1.7, you unfortunately cannot use the binary package versions due to the fact that they require a version of the C library that does not yet exist in FreeBSD-2.1.{6,7}. You can easily use the port30 , however, just as with FreeBSD 2.2. Simply unpack the tar file, cd to the cvsup subdirectory and type "make install". Because CVSup is written in Modula-331 , both the package and the port require that the Modula-3 runtime libraries be installed. These are available as the lang/modula-3-lib32 port and the lang/modula-3-lib-3.633 package. If you follow the same directions as for cvsup, these libraries will be compiled and/or installed automatically when you install the CVSup port or package. The Modula-3 libraries are rather large, and fetching and compiling them is not an instantaneous process. For that reason, a third option is provided. You can get _s_t_a_t_i_c_a_l_l_y _l_i_n_k_e_d FreeBSD executables for CVSup from the USA distribu tion site: ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsup-bin-16.0.tar.gz34 (client including GUI). ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-16.0.tar.gz35 (client without GUI). ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-16.0.tar.gz36 (server). as well as from the many FreeBSD _F_T_P _m_i_r_r_o_r _s_i_t_e_s (section 25.2, page 477) ____________________ 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. FreeBSD Handbook 366 around the world. Most users will need only the client. These executables are entirely self-con tained, and they will run on any version of FreeBSD from FreeBSD-2.1.0 to FreeBSD-current. In summary, your options for installing CVSup are: FreeBSD-2.2 or later: static binary, port, or package FreeBSD-2.1.6, 2.1.7: static binary or port FreeBSD-2.1.5 or earlier: static binary _1_8_._3_._3_._3 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the "supfile". Beginning with FreeBSD-2.2, there are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup37 . These examples are also available from ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/38 if you are on a pre-2.2 system. The information in a supfile answers the following questions for cvsup: _W_h_i_c_h _f_i_l_e_s _d_o _y_o_u _w_a_n_t _t_o _r_e_c_e_i_v_e_? (section 18.3.3.3, page 367) _W_h_i_c_h _v_e_r_s_i_o_n_s _o_f _t_h_e_m _d_o _y_o_u _w_a_n_t_? (section 18.3.3.3, page 367) _W_h_e_r_e _d_o _y_o_u _w_a_n_t _t_o _g_e_t _t_h_e_m _f_r_o_m_? (section 18.3.3.3, page 369) _W_h_e_r_e _d_o _y_o_u _w_a_n_t _t_o _p_u_t _t_h_e_m _o_n _y_o_u_r _o_w_n _m_a_c_h_i_n_e_? (section 18.3.3.3, page 370) _W_h_e_r_e _d_o _y_o_u _w_a_n_t _t_o _p_u_t _y_o_u_r _s_t_a_t_u_s _f_i_l_e_s_? (section 18.3.3.3, page 370) In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile. A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with "#" and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored. Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a "collection", a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a ____________________ 37. 38. FreeBSD Handbook 367 keyword standing alone, e.g., "delete" or "compress". A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by "=" and a second word. For example, "release=cvs" is a value field. A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name "*default" can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent col lections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional "*default" lines. With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of _F_r_e_e_B_S_D_-_c_u_r_r_e_n_t (section 18.1, page 351). Which files do you want to receive? The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called "col lections". The collections that are available are described _h_e_r_e (section 18.3.3.5, page 372). In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection "src-all" which will give us all of that, except the export-controlled cryptography support. Let us assume for this example that we are in the USA or Canada. Then we can get the cryptography code with one additional collection, "cvs-crypto". As a first step toward constructing our sup file, we simply list these collections, one per line: src-all cvs-crypto Which version(s) of them do you want? With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the "tag=" and "date=" value fields. WWAARRNNIINNGG:: Be very careful to specify any "tag=" fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use _o_n_l_y "tag=." for the "ports-*" col lections. The "tag=" field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch FreeBSD Handbook 368 tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in: tag=. The main line of development, also known as FreeBSD-current. Note: the "." is not punctuation; it is the name of the tag. Valid for all collections. tag=RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.x, also known as FreeBSD-stable. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.x, also known as 2.2-stable. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_0 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.1.x - this branch is largely obsolete. Not valid for the ports-* collections. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in: tag=RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.7. Not valid for the ports-* collections. FreeBSD Handbook 369 tag=RELENG_2_1_6_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6.1. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.5. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.0. Not valid for the ports-* collections. WWAARRNNIINNGG:: Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which hap pens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the "date=" value field. The cvsup(1) manual page explains how to do that. For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-current. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile: *default tag=. There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a "tag=" field nor a "date=" field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their sys tems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however. Where do you want to get them from? We use the "host=" field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the _C_V_S_u_p _m_i_r_r_o_r _s_i_t_e_s (section 25.4, page 487) will do, though you should try to select one that's close to you in cyberspace. In this exam ple, we'll use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site, "cvsup666.FreeBSD.org": *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org You'll need to change the host to one that actually exists before running CVSup. Note, on any particular run, you can override the host setting on the command line, with "-h hostname". FreeBSD Handbook 370 Where do you want to put them on your own machine? The "prefix=" field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, "/usr/src". The "src" directory is already implicit in the collec tions we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification: *default prefix=/usr Where should cvsup maintain its status files? The cvsup client maintains certain status files in what is called the "base" directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, "/usr/local/etc/cvsup": *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line. If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist. Miscellaneous supfile settings: There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile: *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress "release=cvs" indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discus sion. "delete" gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always spec ify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up to date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone. "use-rel-suffix" is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the cvsup(1) manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it. "compress" enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially. FreeBSD Handbook 371 Putting it all together: Here is the entire supfile for our example: *default tag=. *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress src-all cvs-crypto _1_8_._3_._3_._4 _R_u_n_n_i_n_g _C_V_S_u_p You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple: cvsup supfile where "supfile" is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual things. Press the "go" button, and watch it run. Since you are updating your actual "/usr/src" tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line: mkdir /var/tmp/dest cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in "/usr/src", but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in "/var/tmp/dest/usr/src". CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to "/usr/src", you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run. If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup: cvsup -g -L 2 supfile The "-g" tells cvsup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not run ning X11, but otherwise you have to specify it. The "-L 2" tells cvsup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from "-L 0" to "-L 2". The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages. FreeBSD Handbook 372 There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type "cvsup -H". For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page. Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of cvsup using cron(8). Obviously, you should not let cvsup use its GUI when running it from cron. _1_8_._3_._3_._5 _C_V_S_u_p _F_i_l_e _C_o_l_l_e_c_t_i_o_n_s The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collec tions. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below. The most commonly used collections are src-all, cvs-crypto, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them. cvs-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD CVS repository, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. distrib release=cvs Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD. doc-all release=cvs Sources for the FreeBSD handbook and other documenta tion. ports-all release=cvs The FreeBSD ports collection. ports-archivers release=cvs Archiving tools. ports-astro release=cvs Astronomical ports. ports-audio release=cvs Sound support. ports-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/ports. ports-benchmarks release=cvs Benchmarks. ports-biology release=cvs Biology. FreeBSD Handbook 373 ports-cad release=cvs Computer aided design tools. ports-chinese release=cvs Chinese language support. ports-comms release=cvs Communication software. ports-converters release=cvs character code converters. ports-databases release=cvs Databases. ports-deskutils release=cvs Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. ports-devel release=cvs Development utilities. ports-editors release=cvs Editors. ports-emulators release=cvs Emulators for other operating systems. ports-games release=cvs Games. ports-german release=cvs German language support. ports-graphics release=cvs Graphics utilities. ports-japanese release=cvs Japanese language support. ports-korean release=cvs Korean language support. ports-lang release=cvs Programming languages. ports-mail release=cvs Mail software. ports-math release=cvs Numerical computation software. ports-mbone release=cvs MBone applications. FreeBSD Handbook 374 ports-misc release=cvs Miscellaneous utilities. ports-net release=cvs Networking software. ports-news release=cvs USENET news software. ports-plan9 release=cvs Various programs from Plan9. ports-print release=cvs Printing software. ports-russian release=cvs Russian language support. ports-security release=cvs Security utilities. ports-shells release=cvs Command line shells. ports-sysutils release=cvs System utilities. ports-textproc release=cvs text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing). ports-vietnamese release=cvs Vietnamese language support. ports-www release=cvs Software related to the World Wide Web. ports-x11 release=cvs Ports to support the X window system. ports-x11-clocks release=cvs X11 clocks. ports-x11-fm release=cvs X11 file managers. ports-x11-fonts release=cvs X11 fonts and font utilities. ports-x11-toolkits release=cvs X11 toolkits. ports-x11-wm release=cvs X11 window managers. FreeBSD Handbook 375 src-all releaseT=hcevsmain FreeBSD sources, excluding the export- restricted cryptography code. src-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src. src-bin release=cvs User utilities that may be needed in sin gle-user mode (/usr/src/bin). src-contrib release=cvs Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib). src-etc release=cvs System configuration files (/usr/src/etc). src-games release=cvs Games (/usr/src/games). src-gnu release=cvs Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu). src-include release=cvs Header files (/usr/src/include). src-kerberosIV release=cvs KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/ker berosIV). src-lib release=cvs Libraries (/usr/src/lib). src-libexec release=cvs System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec). src-release release=cvs Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release). src-sbin release=cvs System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin). src-share release=cvs Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share). src-sys release=cvs The kernel (/usr/src/sys). FreeBSD Handbook 376 src-tools release=cvs Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools). src-usrbin release=cvs User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin). src-usrsbin release=cvs System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin). www releaseT=hcevssources for the World Wide Web data. cvs-crypto releaseT=hcevsexport-restricted cryptography code. src-crypto release=cvs Export-restricted utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto). src-eBones release=cvs Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). src-secure release=cvs DES (/usr/src/secure). distrib release=TsheelfCVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites. gnats release=curTrheentGNATS bug-tracking database. mail-archive release=curFrreenetBSD mailing list archive. www release=curTrheentinstalled World Wide Web data. Used by WWW mirror sites. _1_8_._3_._3_._6 _A_n_n_o_u_n_c_e_m_e_n_t_s_, _Q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s_, _a_n_d _B_u_g _R_e_p_o_r_t_s Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list . New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the FreeBSD announcements mailing list . Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com39 . _1_8_._4 _U_s_i_n_g _m_a_k_e _w_o_r_l_d _t_o _r_e_b_u_i_l_d _y_o_u_r _s_y_s_t_e_m _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _N_i_k _C_l_a_y_t_o_n . ____________________ 39. FreeBSD Handbook 377 Once you have synchronised your local source tree against a particular version of FreeBSD (stable, current and so on) you must then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Currently, the best source of information on how to do that is a tutorial available from http://www.nothing-going-on.demon.co.uk/FreeBSD/make-world/make- world.html. A successor to this tutorial will be integrated into the handbook. _1_9_. _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_n_g _t_o _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J_o_r_d_a_n _K_. _H_u_b_b_a_r_d . So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that _r_e_l_i_e_s on the contribu tions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system envi ronment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our "TODO" list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documen tation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly some thing you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and main tained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. _1_9_._1 _W_h_a_t _I_s _N_e_e_d_e_d The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordi nator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? FreeBSD Handbook 378 _1_9_._1_._1 _H_i_g_h _p_r_i_o_r_i_t_y _t_a_s_k_s The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 1. 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. 2. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: FreeBSD filesystem project mailing list Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: Eivind Eklund Fix the union file system. Coordinator: David Greenman 3. Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: FreeBSD technical discus sions mailing list 4. New bus architecture. Overall coordination: New Bus Architecture mailing list Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: Doug Rabson Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. 5. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: FreeBSD technical discussions mail ing list Fix the syscons ALT-Fn/vt switching hangs. Coordinator: Sren Schmidt 6. Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: FreeBSD security mailing list Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: FreeBSD Handbook 379 Eivind Eklund Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: Eivind Eklund Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the over all securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: Eivind Eklund Make it possible to upload a list of 'allowed programs' to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be use e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivates, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the rele vant parts. Coordinator: Eivind Eklund Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying 'suser()'. Coordinator: Eivind Eklund Add code to the NFS layer so you cannot chdir("..") out of a NFS partition. E.g.: /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS file handle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. _1_9_._1_._2 _M_e_d_i_u_m _p_r_i_o_r_i_t_y _t_a_s_k_s The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: 1. Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. 2. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: Michael Smith and Poul-Henning Kamp Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). FreeBSD Handbook 380 User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). 3. Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: Michael Smith and Poul-Henning Kamp APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). _1_9_._1_._3 _L_o_w _p_r_i_o_r_i_t_y _t_a_s_k_s The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert 1. NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. 2. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just pre vious rev FreeBSD boxes. 3. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemp tion). 4. A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event han dling. But there are things like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spin ning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). _1_9_._1_._4 _S_m_a_l_l_e_r _t_a_s_k_s Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for 'weekend hack ers', or people without programming skills. 1. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.freebsd.org which builds a full release once a day - every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. 2. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. FreeBSD Handbook 381 3. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). 4. Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) - just send an email to FreeBSD documentation project mailing list asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this - in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. 5. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and the comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc newsgroupoccasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. 6. If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully applied to -cur rent but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (nor mally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. 7. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. 8. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. 9. Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!) 10. Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. 11. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. 12. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next ver sion) 13. Suggest further tasks for this list! _1_9_._2 _H_o_w _t_o _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: _1_9_._2_._1 _B_u_g _r_e_p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _g_e_n_e_r_a_l _c_o_m_m_e_n_t_a_r_y " An idea or suggestion of _g_e_n_e_r_a_l technical interest should be mailed to the FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list . Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a _h_i_g_h volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to . See _m_a_i_l_i_n_g _l_i_s_t_s (section 27.1, page 498) for more FreeBSD Handbook 382 information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the send-pr(1) program or its WEB-based equivalent40 . Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. Consider compressing them and using uuencode(1) if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to . After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.ORG41 . Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the send-pr(1) command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the FreeBSD problem reports mailing list . _1_9_._2_._2 _C_h_a_n_g_e_s _t_o _t_h_e _d_o_c_u_m_e_n_t_a_t_i_o_n Changes to the documentation are overseen by the FreeBSD documentation project mailing list . Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in _B_u_g _R_e_p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _C_o_m_m_e_n_t_a_r_y (section 19.2.1, page 381). _1_9_._2_._3 _C_h_a_n_g_e_s _t_o _e_x_i_s_t_i_n_g _s_o_u_r_c_e _c_o_d_e An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special on-going release of FreeBSD known as ``FreeBSD-current'' which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See _S_t_a_y_i_n_g _c_u_r_ _r_e_n_t _w_i_t_h _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (section 18.1, page 351) for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the FreeBSD announcements mailing list and the FreeBSD-current mailing list lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the diff(1) command, with the `context diff' form being preferred. For example: ____________________ 40. 41. FreeBSD Handbook 383 diff -c oldfile newfile or diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or direc tory hierarchy. See the man page for diff(1) for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the patch(1) command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the send-pr(1) program as described in _B_u_g _R_e_p_o_r_t_s _a_n_d _G_e_n_e_r_a_l _C_o_m_m_e_n_t_a_r_y (section 19.2.1, page 381). _D_o _n_o_t just send the diffs to the FreeBSD technical discussions mailing list or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the uuencode(1) program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to FreeBSD core team directly rather than submitting it with send-pr(1). The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also _v_e_r_y _b_u_s_y and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to man 9 intro and man 9 style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. _1_9_._2_._4 _N_e_w _c_o_d_e _o_r _m_a_j_o_r _v_a_l_u_e_-_a_d_d_e_d _p_a_c_k_a_g_e_s In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always nec essary to either send changes as uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site . When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: 1. The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to its ``no strings attached'' nature and general attractiveness to commercial enter prises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. 2. The GNU Public License, or ``GPL''. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the FreeBSD Handbook 384 code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes avail able through their own channels. To place a ``BSD-style'' copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the `%%' with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/exam ples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. _1_9_._2_._5 _M_o_n_e_y_, _H_a_r_d_w_a_r_e _o_r _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t _a_c_c_e_s_s We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items our selves. FreeBSD Handbook 385 _1_9_._2_._5_._1 _D_o_n_a_t_i_n_g _f_u_n_d_s While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(c)(3) (charitable) corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc. FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by Jordan K. Hubbard and David Greenman with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further the project's goals. Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in care of the following address: FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, suite #F. Concord CA, 94520 [currently using the Walnut Creek CDROM address until a PO box can be opened] Wire transfers may also be sent directly to: Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176 San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account #: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.) Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to Jordan Hubbard42 , either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given above. If you do not wish to be listed in our _d_o_n_o_r_s (section 19.3, page 386) section, please specify this when making your donation. Thanks! _1_9_._2_._5_._2 _D_o_n_a_t_i_n_g _h_a_r_d_w_a_r_e Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the _d_o_n_a_t_i_n_g _f_u_n_d_s section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are cur rently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new ____________________ 42. FreeBSD Handbook 386 release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, moth erboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please con tact David Greenman for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the FreeBSD core team before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. _1_9_._2_._5_._3 _D_o_n_a_t_i_n_g _I_n_t_e_r_n_e_t _a_c_c_e_s_s We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators43 for more information. _1_9_._3 _D_o_n_o_r_s _G_a_l_l_e_r_y The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to pub lically thank them here! CCoonnttrriibbuuttoorrss ttoo tthhee cceennttrraall sseerrvveerr pprroojjeecctt:: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace _f_r_e_e_f_a_l_l_._f_r_e_e_b_s_d_._o_r_g by donating the following items: Ade Barkah44 and his employer, Hemisphere Online45 , donated a PPeenn ttiiuumm PPrroo ((PP66)) 220000MMhhzz CCPPUU ASA Computers46 donated a TTyyaann 11666622 mmootthheerrbbooaarrdd. Joe McGuckin47 of ViaNet Communications48 donated a KKiinnggssttoonn eetthheerr nneett ccoonnttrroolllleerr.. Jack O'Neill49 donated an NNCCRR 5533CC887755 SSCCSSII ccoonnttrroolllleerr ccaarrdd. ____________________ 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. FreeBSD Handbook 387 Ulf Zimmermann50 of Alameda Networks51 donated 112288MMBB ooff mmeemmoorryy, a 44 GGbb ddiisskk ddrriivvee aanndd tthhee ccaassee.. DDiirreecctt ffuunnddiinngg:: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson52 Matt Dillon53 Epilogue Technology Corporation54 Sean Eric Fagan Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli55 Josef C. Grosch56 Robert T. Morris Chuck Robey57 Kenneth P. Stox58 of Imaginary Landscape, LLC.59 Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk60 ____________________ 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. FreeBSD Handbook 388 Laser561 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their var ious FreeBSD CD-ROMs. Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co.62 donated a portion of their profits from _H_a_j_i_m_e_t_e _n_o _F_r_e_e_B_S_D (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp.63 donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp64 has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET65 Pacific Solutions66 HHaarrddwwaarree ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorrss:: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hard ware for testing and device driver development/support: Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB file servers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debug ging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. Chuck Robey contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu , and Wilko Bulte , provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. ____________________ 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. FreeBSD Handbook 389 Ernst Winter contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-) Tekram Technologies67 sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems avail able from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD68 . Larry M. Augustin69 contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcom ing Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest pro gramming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies70 donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. SSppeecciiaall ccoonnttrriibbuuttoorrss:: Walnut Creek CDROM71 has donated almost more than we can say (see the _h_i_s_t_o_r_y (section 1.2, page 5) document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for _f_r_e_e_f_a_l_l_._F_r_e_e_B_S_D_._O_R_G, our primary development machine, and for _t_h_u_d_._F_r_e_e_B_S_D_._O_R_G, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden72 has been patiently supporting Jrg Wunsch who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flakey to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc.73 has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the _d_o_s_e_m_u command. ____________________ 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. FreeBSD Handbook 390 _1_9_._4 _C_o_r_e _T_e_a_m _A_l_u_m_n_u_s The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the period indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project! _I_n _r_o_u_g_h _c_h_r_o_n_o_l_o_g_i_c_a_l _o_r_d_e_r_: Guido van Rooij (1995 - 1999) John Dyson (1993 - 1998) Nate Williams (1992 - 1996) Rod Grimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) Geoff Rehmet (1993 - 1995) Paul Richards (1993 - 1995) Scott Mace (1992 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) J.T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Christoph Rotitschko (1992 - 1993) _1_9_._5 _D_e_r_i_v_e_d _S_o_f_t_w_a_r_e _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_o_r_s This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release pro vided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of Cali fornia, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. _1_9_._6 _A_d_d_i_t_i_o_n_a_l _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_o_r_s (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou AMAGAI Yoshiji Aaron Bornstein Aaron Smith FreeBSD Handbook 391 Achim Patzner Ada T Lim Adam Baran Adam Glass Adam McDougall Ade Barkah Ade Barkah Adrian Colley Adrian Hall Adrian Mariano Adrian Steinmann Adrian T. Filipi-Martin Ajit Thyagarajan Akio Morita Akira SAWADA Akira Watanabe Akito Fujita Alain Kalker Alan Bawden Alan Cox Alec Wolman Aled Morris Alex Alex D. Chen Alex G. Bulushev Alex Le Heux Alex Nash FreeBSD Handbook 392 Alexander B. Povolotsky Alexander Leidinger Alexandre Snarskii Alistair G. Crooks Allan Saddi Allen Campbell Amakawa Shuhei Amancio Hasty Amir Farah Amy Baron Anatoly A. Orehovsky Anatoly Vorobey Anders Nordby Anders Thulin Andras Olah Andre Albsmeier Andre Oppermann Andreas Haakh Andreas Kohout Andreas Lohr Andreas Schulz Andreas Wetzel Andreas Wrede Andres Vega Garcia Andrew Atrens Andrew Gillham Andrew Gordon FreeBSD Handbook 393 Andrew Herbert Andrew J. Korty Andrew L. Moore Andrew McRae Andrew Stevenson Andrew Timonin Andrew V. Stesin Andrew Webster Andrey Zakhvatov Andy Farkas Andy Valencia Andy Whitcroft Angelo Turetta Anthony C. Chavez Anthony Yee-Hang Chan Anton Berezin Antti Kaipila Are Bryne Ari Suutari Arjan de Vet Arne Henrik Juul Assar Westerlund Atsushi Furuta Atsushi Murai Bakul Shah Barry Bierbauch Barry Lustig FreeBSD Handbook 394 Ben Hutchinson Ben Jackson Ben Smithurst Ben Walter Benjamin Lewis Bernd Rosauer Bill Kish Bill Trost Blaz Zupan Bob Van Valzah Bob Willcox Boris Staeblow Boyd R. Faulkner Brad Karp Bradley Dunn Brandon Gillespie Bill Lloyd Bob Wilcox Boyd Faulkner Brent J. Nordquist Brett Lymn Brett Taylor Brian Campbell Brian Clapper Brian Cully Brian F. Feldman Brian Handy FreeBSD Handbook 395 Brian Litzinger Brian McGovern Brian Moore Brian R. Haug Brian Somers Brian Tao Brion Moss Bruce A. Mah Bruce Albrecht Bruce Gingery Bruce J. Keeler Bruce Murphy Bruce Walter Carey Jones Carl Fongheiser Carl Mascott Casper Castor Fu Cejka Rudolf Chain Lee Charles Hannum Charles Henrich Charles Mott Charles Owens Chet Ramey Chia-liang Kao Chiharu Shibata FreeBSD Handbook 396 Chip Norkus Choi Jun Ho Chris Csanady Chris Dabrowski Chris Dillon Chris Piazza Chris Shenton Chris Stenton Chris Timmons Chris Torek Christian Gusenbauer Christian Haury Christian Weisgerber Christoph P. Kukulies Christoph Robitschko Christoph Weber-Fahr Christopher G. Demetriou Christopher T. Johnson Chrisy Luke Chuck Hein Clive Lin Colman Reilly Conrad Sabatier Coranth Gryphon Cornelis van der Laan Cove Schneider Craig Leres FreeBSD Handbook 397 Craig Loomis Craig Metz Craig Spannring Craig Struble Cristian Ferretti Curt Mayer Cy Schubert DI. Christian Gusenbauer Dai Ishijima Damian Hamill Dan Cross Dan Lukes Dan Nelson Dan Walters Daniel Baker Daniel M. Eischen Daniel O'Connor Daniel Poirot Daniel Rock Danny Egen Danny J. Zerkel Darren Reed Dave Adkins Dave Andersen Dave Blizzard Dave Bodenstab Dave Burgess FreeBSD Handbook 398 Dave Chapeskie Dave Cornejo Dave Edmondson Dave Glowacki Dave Marquardt Dave Tweten David A. Adkins David A. Bader David Borman David Dawes David Filo David Greenman David Holland David Holloway David Horwitt David Hovemeyer David Jones David Kelly David Kulp David L. Nugent David Leonard David Malone David Muir Sharnoff David S. Miller David Wolfskill Dean Gaudet Dean Huxley FreeBSD Handbook 399 Denis Fortin Dennis Glatting Denton Gentry Derek Inksetter Dima Sivachenko Dirk Froemberg Dirk Keunecke Dirk Nehrling Dmitry Khrustalev Dmitry Kohmanyuk Dom Mitchell Don Croyle Don Whiteside Don Morrison Don Yuniskis Donald Maddox Doug Barton Douglas Ambrisko Douglas Carmichael Douglas Crosher Drew Derbyshire Duncan Barclay Dustin Sallings Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Ed Gold Ed Hudson Edward Wang FreeBSD Handbook 400 Edwin Groothus Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel Eric A. Griff Eric Blood Eric J. Chet Eric J. Haug Eric J. Schwertfeger Eric L. Hernes Eric P. Scott Eric Sprinkle Erich Stefan Boleyn Erik E. Rantapaa Erik H. Moe Ernst Winter Eugene M. Kim Eugene Radchenko Evan Champion Faried Nawaz Flemming Jacobsen Fong-Ching Liaw Francis M J Hsieh Frank Bartels Frank Chen Hsiung Chan Frank Durda IV Frank MacLachlan FreeBSD Handbook 401 Frank Nobis Frank Volf Frank ten Wolde Frank van der Linden Fred Cawthorne Fred Gilham Fred Templin Frederick Earl Gray FUJIMOTO Kensaku FUJISHIMA Satsuki FURUSAWA Kazuhisa Gabor Kincses Gabor Zahemszky Garance A Drosehn Gareth McCaughan Gary A. Browning Gary Howland Gary J. Gary Kline Gaspar Chilingarov Gea-Suan Lin Geoff Rehmet Georg Wagner Gerard Roudier Gianmarco Giovannelli Gil Kloepfer Jr. Gilad Rom FreeBSD Handbook 402 Ginga Kawaguti Giles Lean Glen Foster Glenn Johnson Godmar Back Goran Hammarback Gord Matzigkeit Graham Wheeler Greg A. Woods Greg Ansley Greg Troxel Greg Ungerer Gregory Bond Gregory D. Moncreaff Guy Harris Guy Helmer HAMADA Naoki HONDA Yasuhiro HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki Hannu Savolainen Hans Huebner Hans Petter Bieker Hans Zuidam Harlan Stenn Harold Barker Havard Eidnes Heikki Suonsivu FreeBSD Handbook 403 Heiko W. Rupp Helmut F. Wirth Henrik Vestergaard Draboel Herb Peyerl Hideaki Ohmon Hidekazu Kuroki Hideki Yamamoto Hidetoshi Shimokawa Hideyuki Suzuki Hirayama Issei Hiroaki Sakai Hiroharu Tamaru Hironori Ikura Hiroshi Nishikawa Hiroya Tsubakimoto Hiroyuki NAKAJI Holger Veit Holm Tiffe Horance Chou Horihiro Kumagaio Horikawa Kazuo Hr.Ladavac Hubert Feyrer Hugh F. Mahon Hugh Mahon Hung-Chi Chu IMAI Takeshi FreeBSD Handbook 404 IMAMURA Tomoaki Ian Dowse Ian Holland Ian Struble Ian Vaudrey Igor Khasilev Igor Roshchin Igor Sviridov Igor Vinokurov Ikuo Nakagawa Ilya V. Komarov Issei Suzuki Itsuro Saito J. Bryant J. David Lowe J. Han J. Hawk J.T. Conklin J.T. Jang Jack Jacob Bohn Lorensen Jagane D Sundar Jake Hamby James Clark James D. Stewart James Jegers James Raynard FreeBSD Handbook 405 James T. Liu James da Silva et al Jan Conard Jan Koum Janick Taillandier Janusz Kokot Jarle Greipsland Jason Garman Jason Thorpe Jason Wright Jason Young Javier Martin Rueda Jay Fenlason Jaye Mathisen Jeff Bartig Jeff Forys Jeff Kletsky Jeffrey Evans Jeffrey Wheat Jens Schweikhardt Jeremy Allison Jeremy Chatfield Jeremy Lea Jeremy Prior Jeroen Ruigrok/Asmodai Jesse Rosenstock Jian-Da Li FreeBSD Handbook 406 Jim Babb Jim Binkley Jim Carroll Jim Flowers Jim Leppek Jim Lowe Jim Mattson Jim Mercer Jim Mock Jim Wilson Jimbo Bahooli Jin Guojun Joachim Kuebart Joao Carlos Mendes Luis Jochen Pohl Joe "Marcus" Clarke Joe Abley Joe Jih-Shian Lu Joe Orthoefer Joe Traister Joel Faedi Joel Ray Holveck Joel Sutton Johan Granlund Johan Karlsson Johan Larsson Johann Tonsing FreeBSD Handbook 407 Johannes Helander Johannes Stille John Baldwin John Beckett John Beukema John Brezak John Capo John F. Woods John Goerzen John Hay John Heidemann John Hood John Kohl John Lind John Mackin John P John Perry John Preisler John Rochester John Sadler John Saunders John W. DeBoskey John Wehle John Woods Jon Morgan Jonathan H N Chin Jonathan Hanna FreeBSD Handbook 408 Jorge Goncalves Jorge M. Goncalves Jos Backus Jose M. Alcaide Josef Grosch Josef Karthauser Joseph Stein Josh Gilliam Josh Tiefenbach Joshua Peck Macdonald Juergen Lock Juha Inkari Jukka A. Ukkonen Julian Assange Julian Coleman Julian H. Stacey Julian Jenkins Junichi Satoh Junji SAKAI Junya WATANABE K.Higashino KUNISHIMA Takeo Kai Vorma Kaleb S. Keithley Kaneda Hiloshi Kapil Chowksey Karl Denninger FreeBSD Handbook 409 Karl Dietz Karl Lehenbauer Kato Takenori Kauzo Horikawa Kawanobe Koh Kazuhiko Kiriyama Kazuo Horikawa Kees Jan Koster Keith Bostic Keith E. Walker Keith Moore Keith Sklower Ken Hornstein Ken Key Ken Mayer Kenji Saito Kenji Tomita Kenneth Furge Kenneth Monville Kenneth R. Westerback Kenneth Stailey Kent Talarico Kent Vander Velden Kentaro Inagaki Kevin Bracey Kevin Day Kevin Lahey FreeBSD Handbook 410 Kevin Street Kevin Van Maren Kiroh HARADA Klaus Klein Klaus-J. Wolf Koichi Sato Kostya Lukin Kouichi Hirabayashi Kris Kennaway Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt Olsen L. Jonas Olsson Lars Kller Larry Altneu Laurence Lopez Lee Cremeans Liang Tai-hwa Lon Willett Louis A. Mamakos Louis Mamakos Lucas James Lyndon Nerenberg M.C. Wong MANTANI Nobutaka MIHIRA Sanpei Yoshiro MITA Yoshio MITSUNAGA Noriaki FreeBSD Handbook 411 MOROHOSHI Akihiko Magnus Enbom Mahesh Neelakanta Makoto MATSUSHITA Makoto WATANABE Malte Lance Manu Iyengar Marc Frajola Marc G. Fournier Marc Ramirez Marc Slemko Marc van Kempen Marcel Moolenaar Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira Mark Andrews Mark Cammidge Mark Diekhans Mark Huizer Mark J. Taylor Mark Krentel Mark Mayo Mark Thompson Mark Tinguely Mark Treacy Mark Valentine Martin Birgmeier Martin Ibert FreeBSD Handbook 412 Martin Kammerhofer Martin Renters Martti Kuparinen Masachika ISHIZUKA Mas.TAKEMURA Masafumi NAKANE Masahiro Sekiguchi Masanobu Saitoh Masanori Kanaoka Masanori Kiriake Masatoshi TAMURA Mats Lofkvist Matt Bartley Matt Thomas Matt White Matthew C. Mead Matthew Cashdollar Matthew Flatt Matthew Fuller Matthew Hunt Matthew N. Dodd Matthew Stein Matthias Pfaller Matthias Scheler Mattias Gronlund Mattias Pantzare Maurice Castro FreeBSD Handbook 413 Max Euston Max Khon Maxim Bolotin Micha Class Michael Butler Michael Butschky Michael Clay Michael Elbel Michael Galassi Michael Hancock Michael Hohmuth Michael Perlman Michael Petry Michael Reifenberger Michael Searle Michal Listos Michio Karl Jinbo Miguel Angel Sagreras Mihoko Tanaka Mika Nystrom Mikael Hybsch Mikael Karpberg Mike Del Mike Durian Mike Durkin Mike E. Matsnev Mike Evans FreeBSD Handbook 414 Mike Grupenhoff Mike Hibler Mike Karels Mike McGaughey Mike Meyer Mike Mitchell Mike Murphy Mike Peck Mike Spengler Mikhail A. Sokolov Mikhail Teterin Ming-I Hseh Mitsuru IWASAKI Monte Mitzelfelt Morgan Davis Mostyn Lewis Motoyuki Kasahara Motoyuki Konno Munechika Sumikawa Murray Stokely N.G.Smith NAGAO Tadaaki NAKAJI Hiroyuki NAKAMURA Kazushi NAKAMURA Motonori NIIMI Satoshi NOKUBI Hirotaka FreeBSD Handbook 415 Nadav Eiron Nanbor Wang Naofumi Honda Naoki Hamada Narvi Nathan Dorfman Neal Fachan Neil Blakey-Milner Niall Smart Nick Barnes Nick Handel Nick Hibma Nick Hilliard Nick Sayer Nick Williams Nickolay N. Dudorov Niklas Hallqvist Nisha Talagala No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name FreeBSD Handbook 416 No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name FreeBSD Handbook 417 No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name No Name FreeBSD Handbook 418 No Name No Name Nobuhiro Yasutomi Nobuyuki Koganemaru Norio Suzuki Noritaka Ishizumi Noriyuki Soda Oleg Sharoiko Oliver Breuninger Oliver Friedrichs Oliver Fromme Oliver Laumann Oliver Oberdorf Olof Johansson Osokin Sergey aka oZZ Pace Willisson Paco Rosich Palle Girgensohn Parag Patel Pascal Pederiva Pasvorn Boonmark Patrick Gardella Patrick Hausen Paul Antonov Paul F. Werkowski Paul Fox Paul Koch FreeBSD Handbook 419 Paul Kranenburg Paul Mackerras Paul Popelka Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. Paul Saab Paul Sandys Paul T. Root Paul Vixie Paulo Menezes Paulo Menezes Pedro A M Vazquez Pedro Giffuni Pete Bentley Peter Childs Peter Cornelius Peter Haight Peter Hawkins Peter Jeremy Peter M. Chen Peter Much Peter Olsson Peter Philipp Peter Stubbs Phil Maker Phil Sutherland Phil Taylor Philip Musumeci FreeBSD Handbook 420 Pierre Y. Dampure Pius Fischer Pomegranate Powerdog Industries R. Kym Horsell Rajesh Vaidheeswarran Ralf Friedl Randal S. Masutani Randall Hopper Randall W. Dean Randy Bush Reinier Bezuidenhout Remy Card Ricardas Cepas Richard Henderson Richard Hwang Richard J Kuhns Richard M. Neswold Richard Seaman, Jr. Richard Stallman Richard Straka Richard Tobin Richard Wackerbarth Richard Winkel Richard Wiwatowski Rick Macklem Rick Macklin FreeBSD Handbook 421 Rob Austein Rob Mallory Rob Snow Robert Crowe Robert D. Thrush Robert Eckardt Robert Sanders Robert Sexton Robert Shady Robert Swindells Robert Watson Robert Withrow Robert Yoder Robin Carey Roger Hardiman Roland Jesse Ron Bickers Ron Lenk Ronald Kuehn Rudolf Cejka Ruslan Belkin Ruslan Ermilov Ruslan Shevchenko Russell L. Carter Russell Vincent Ryan Younce SANETO Takanori FreeBSD Handbook 422 SAWADA Mizuki SUGIMURA Takashi SURANYI Peter Sakari Jalovaara Sam Hartman Samuel Lam Sander Vesik Sandro Sigala Sascha Blank Sascha Wildner Satoh Junichi Satoshi Taoka Scot Elliott Scot W. Hetzel Scott A. Kenney Scott Blachowicz Scott Burris Scott Hazen Mueller Scott Michel Scott Reynolds Sebastian Strollo Seigou TANIMURA Serge A. Babkin Serge V. Vakulenko Sergei Chechetkin Sergei S. Laskavy Sergey Gershtein FreeBSD Handbook 423 Sergey Potapov Sergey Shkonda Sergey V.Dorokhov Sergio Lenzi Shaun Courtney Shawn M. Carey Sheldon Hearn Shigeyuki FUKUSHIMA Shigio Yamaguchi Shunsuke Akiyama Simon Simon Burge Simon J Gerraty Simon Marlow Simon Shapiro Sin'ichiro MIYATANI Slaven Rezic Soochon Radee Soren Dayton Soren Dossing Soren S. Jorvang Stefan Bethke Stefan Eggers Stefan Moeding Stefan Petri Stefan `Sec` Zehl Steinar Haug FreeBSD Handbook 424 Stephane E. Potvin Stephane Legrand Stephen Clawson Stephen F. Combs Stephen Farrell Stephen Hocking Stephen J. Roznowski Stephen McKay Stephen Melvin Steve Bauer Steve Deering Steve Gerakines Steve Gericke Steve Piette Steve Schwarz Steven G. Kargl Steven H. Samorodin Steven McCanne Steven Plite Steven Wallace Stuart Henderson Sue Blake Sugiura Shiro Sujal Patel Sune Stjerneby Suzuki Yoshiaki Tadashi Kumano FreeBSD Handbook 425 Taguchi Takeshi Takahashi Yoshihiro Takahiro Yugawa Takanori Watanabe Takashi Mega Takashi Uozu Takayuki Ariga Takeru NAIKI Takeshi Amaike Takeshi MUTOH Takeshi Ohashi Takeshi WATANABE Takuya SHIOZAKI Tatoku Ogaito Tatsumi HOSOKAWA Ted Buswell Ted Faber Ted Lemon Terry Lambert Terry Lee Tetsuya Furukawa Theo de Raadt Thomas Thomas D. Dean Thomas David Rivers Thomas G. McWilliams Thomas Gellekum FreeBSD Handbook 426 Thomas Graichen Thomas Knig Thomas Ptacek Thomas Stromberg Thomas Valentino Crimi Thomas Wintergerst rur varsson Tim Kientzle Tim Singletary Tim Wilkinson Timo J. Rinne Todd Miller Tom Tom Tom Gray - DCA Tom Hukins Tom Jobbins Tom Pusateri Tom Rush Tom Samplonius Tomohiko Kurahashi Tony Kimball Tony Li Tony Lynn Torbjorn Granlund Toshihiko ARAI Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA FreeBSD Handbook 427 Toshihiro Kanda Toshiomi Moriki Trefor S. Trevor Blackwell URATA Shuichiro Ugo Paternostro Ulf Kieber Ulli Linzen Ustimenko Semen Uwe Arndt Vadim Chekan Vadim Kolontsov Vadim Mikhailov Van Jacobson Vanill I. Shu Vanilla Pooh Shu Vasily V. Grechishnikov Vasim Valejev Vernon J. Schryver Vic Abell Ville Eerola Vincent Poy Vincenzo Capuano Virgil Champlin Vladimir A. Jakovenko Vladimir Kushnir Vsevolod Lobko FreeBSD Handbook 428 W. Gerald Hicks W. Richard Stevens Walt Howard Warren Toomey Wayne Scott Werner Griessl Wes Santee Wietse Venema Wilfredo Sanchez Wiljo Heinen Wilko Bulte Willem Jan Withagen William Jolitz William Liao Wojtek Pilorz Wolfgang Helbig Wolfgang Solfrank Wolfgang Stanglmeier Wu Ching-hong Yarema Yaroslav Terletsky Yen-Shuo Su Ying-Chieh Liao Yixin Jin Yoshiaki Uchikawa Yoshihiko OHTA Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA FreeBSD Handbook 429 Yoshikazu Goto Yoshimasa Ohnishi Yoshishige Arai Yuichi MATSUTAKA Yujiro MIYATA Yukihiro Nakai Yusuke Nawano Yuval Yarom Yves Fonk Yves Fonk Zach Heilig Zahemszhky Gabor Zhong Ming-Xun arci der Mouse frf Ege Rekk _1_9_._7 _3_8_6_B_S_D _P_a_t_c_h _K_i_t _P_a_t_c_h _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_o_r_s (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass Adrian Hall Andrey A. Chernov Andrew Herbert Andrew Moore Andy Valencia Arne Henrik Juul Bakul Shah FreeBSD Handbook 430 Barry Lustig Bob Wilcox Branko Lankester Brett Lymn Charles Hannum Chris G. Demetriou Chris Torek Christoph Robitschko Daniel Poirot Dave Burgess Dave Rivers David Dawes David Greenman Eric J. Haug Felix Gaehtgens Frank Maclachlan Gary A. Browning Gary Howland Geoff Rehmet Goran Hammarback Guido van Rooij Guy Harris Havard Eidnes Herb Peyerl Holger Veit Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin FreeBSD Handbook 431 Jagane D Sundar < jagane@netcom.com > James Clark James Jegers James W. Dolter James da Silva et al Jay Fenlason Jim Wilson Jrg Lohse Jrg Wunsch John Dyson - John Woods Jordan K. Hubbard Julian Elischer Julian Stacey Karl Dietz Karl Lehenbauer Keith Bostic Ken Hughes Kent Talarico Kevin Lahey Marc Frajola Mark Tinguely Martin Renters Michael Clay Michael Galassi Mike Durkin FreeBSD Handbook 432 Naoki Hamada Nate Williams Nick Handel Pace Willisson Paul Kranenburg Paul Mackerras Paul Popelka Peter da Silva Phil Sutherland Poul-Henning Kamp Ralf Friedl Rick Macklem Robert D. Thrush Rodney W. Grimes Sascha Wildner Scott Burris Scott Reynolds Sean Eric Fagan Simon J Gerraty Stephen McKay Terry Lambert Terry Lee Tor Egge Warren Toomey Wiljo Heinen William Jolitz Wolfgang Solfrank FreeBSD Handbook 433 Wolfgang Stanglmeier Yuval Yarom _2_0_. _S_o_u_r_c_e _T_r_e_e _G_u_i_d_e_l_i_n_e_s _a_n_d _P_o_l_i_c_i_e_s " _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _P_o_u_l_-_H_e_n_n_i_n_g _K_a_m_p . This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for the FreeBSD source tree. _2_0_._1 _M_A_I_N_T_A_I_N_E_R _o_n _M_a_k_e_f_i_l_e_s " June 1996. If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this fact to the world by adding a MAINTAINER= email-addresses line to the makefiles covering this portion of the source tree. The semantics of this are as follows: The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed software, for tracking new ver sions, as appropriate. Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible. It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it doesn't have to be a com mitter and it can easily be a group of people. _2_0_._2 _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _S_o_f_t_w_a_r_e _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _P_o_u_l_-_H_e_n_n_i_n_g _K_a_m_p and David O'Brien . June 1996. FreeBSD Handbook 434 Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical reasons, we call this _c_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch. Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in dealing with this type of software and all have some number of advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged. Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has been selected as the "official" method and will be required for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the "official" versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes to the pri mary developers of the contributed software. Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions. Please Note: because of some unfortunate design limitations with the RCS file format and CVS's use of vendor branches, minor, trivial and/or cosmetic changes are _s_t_r_o_n_g_l_y _d_i_s_c_o_u_r_a_g_e_d on files that are still tracking the vendor branch. "Spelling fixes" are explicitly included here under the "cosmetic" category and are to be avoided for files with revision 1.1.x.x. The repository bloat impact from a single character change can be rather dramatic. The Tcl embedded programming language will be used as example of how this model works: src/contrib/tcl contains the source as distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the "mac", "win" and "compat" subdirectories were eliminated before the import src/lib/libtcl contains only a "bmake style" Makefile that uses the standard bsd.lib.mk make file rules to produce the library and install the documentation. src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style Makefile which will produce and install the "tclsh" program and its associated man-pages using the standard bsd.prog.mk rules. src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software FreeBSD Handbook 435 needs updating. These are not part of the built or installed software. The important thing here is that the "src/contrib/tcl" directory is created according to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a proper CVS vendor-branch, and without RCS keyword expansion) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder ahead and hope it "works out". CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes. Because of the previously mentioned design limitations with CVS's vendor branches, it is required that "official" patches from the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and "committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions rather difficult as there will be conflicts. Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining files shall _n_o_t be removed. If it seems easier, the "bmake" makefiles can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities (as necessary) in the src/tools directory along with the port itself so that it is available to future maintainers. In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it should states things like: Which files have been left out Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the official master site. Where to send patches back to the original authors Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have been made. However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade with the contributed source. Rather you should ``cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci'' after the initial import. Example wording from ``src/contrib/cpio'' is below: FreeBSD Handbook 436 This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with "-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_ For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release. obrien@freebsd.org - 30 March 1997 _2_0_._3 _S_h_a_r_e_d _L_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s " _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _S_a_t_o_s_h_i _A_s_a_m_i , Peter Wemm , and David O'Brien . 9 December 1996. If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should follow these rules. Gener ally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with the release version of the software. The three principles of shared library building are: FreeBSD Handbook 437 Start from 1.0 If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor number If there is an incompatible change, bump major number For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to change. Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z well. Any version number after the ``y'' (ie. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared libraries that differ only in the `micro' revision, ld.so will link with the higher one. Ie: if you link with libfoo.so.3.3.3, the linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything starting with libfoo.so.3.(anything >= 3).(highest available). Note that ld.so will always use the highest "minor" revision. Ie: it will use libc.so.2.2 in preference to libc.so.2.0, even if the program was initially linked with libc.so.2.0. For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared library ver sion number only once between releases. When you make a change to a system library that requires the version number to be bumped, check the Makefile's commit logs. It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change since the release will result in the shared library version number in the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent changes will not. _2_1_. _A_d_d_i_n_g _N_e_w _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n _O_p_t_i_o_n_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J__r_g _W_u_n_s_c_h _N_o_t_e_: You should be familiar with the section about _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (sec tion 5., page 80) before reading here. _2_1_._1 _W_h_a_t_'_s _a _K_e_r_n_e_l _O_p_t_i_o_n_, _A_n_y_w_a_y_? The use of kernel options is basically described in the _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5.3, page 82) section. There's also an explanation of ``historic'' and ``new-style'' options. The ultimate goal is to eventually turn all the supported options in the kernel into new-style ones, so for people who cor rectly did a make depend in their kernel compile directory after running con fig(8), the build process will automatically pick up modified options, and only recompile those files where it is necessary. Wiping out the old compile direc tory on each run of config(8) as it is still done now can then be eliminated again. Basically, a kernel option is nothing else than the definition of a C prepro cessor macro for the kernel compilation process. To make the build truly optional, the corresponding part of the kernel source (or kernel .h file) must be written with the option concept in mind, i. e. the default must have been FreeBSD Handbook 438 made overridable by the config option. This is usually done with something like: #ifndef THIS_OPTION #define THIS_OPTION (some_default_value) #endif /* THIS_OPTION */ This way, an administrator mentioning another value for the option in his con fig file will take the default out of effect, and replace it with his new value. Clearly, the new value will be substituted into the source code during the preprocessor run, so it must be a valid C expression in whatever context the default value would have been used. It is also possible to create value-less options that simply enable or disable a particular piece of code by embracing it in #ifdef THAT_OPTION [your code here] #endif Simply mentioning THAT_OPTION in the config file (with or without any value) will then turn on the corresponding piece of code. People familiar with the C language will immediately recognize that everything could be counted as a ``config option'' where there is at least a single #ifdef referencing it... However, it's unlikely that many people would put options notyet,notdef in their config file, and then wonder why the kernel compilation falls over. :-) Clearly, using arbitrary names for the options makes it very hard to track their usage throughout the kernel source tree. That is the rationale behind the _n_e_w_-_s_t_y_l_e option scheme, where each option goes into a separate .h file in the kernel compile directory, which is by convention named opt__f_o_o.h. This way, the usual Makefile dependencies could be applied, and make can determine what needs to be recompiled once an option has been changed. The old-style option mechanism still has one advantage for local options or maybe experimental options that have a short anticipated lifetime: since it is easy to add a new #ifdef to the kernel source, this has already made it a ker nel config option. In this case, the administrator using such an option is responsible himself for knowing about its implications (and maybe manually forcing the recompilation of parts of his kernel). Once the transition of all supported options has been done, config(8) will warn whenever an unsupported option appears in the config file, but it will nevertheless include it into the kernel Makefile. _2_1_._2 _N_o_w _W_h_a_t _D_o _I _H_a_v_e _t_o _D_o _f_o_r _i_t_? First, edit sys/conf/options (or sys/i386/conf/options._<_a_r_c_h_>, e. g. FreeBSD Handbook 439 sys/i386/conf/options.i386), and select an opt__f_o_o.h file where your new option would best go into. If there is already something that comes close to the purpose of the new option, pick this. For example, options modifying the overall behaviour of the SCSI subsystem can go into opt_scsi.h. By default, simply mentioning an option in the appropriate option file, say FOO, implies its value will go into the corresponding file opt_foo.h. This can be overridden on the right-hand side of a rule by specifying another filename. If there is no opt__f_o_o.h already available for the intended new option, invent a new name. Make it meaningful, and comment the new section in the options[_._<_a_r_c_h_>] file. config(8) will automagically pick up the change, and create that file next time it is run. Most options should go in a header file by themselves.. Packing too many options into a single opt__f_o_o.h will cause too many kernel files to be rebuilt when one of the options has been changed in the config file. Finally, find out which kernel files depend on the new option. Unless you have just invented your option, and it does not exist anywhere yet, find /usr/src/sys -name type f | xargs fgrep NEW_OPTION is your friend in finding them. Go and edit all those files, and add #include "opt_foo.h" _o_n _t_o_p, before all the #include stuff. This sequence is most important as the options could override defaults from the regular include files, if the defaults are of the form #ifndef NEW_OPTION #define NEW_OPTION (something) #endif in the regular header. Adding an option that overrides something in a system header file (i. e., a file sitting in /usr/include/sys/) is almost always a mistake. opt__f_o_o.h can not be included into those files since it would break the headers more seri ously, but if it is not included, then places that include it may get an incon sistent value for the option. Yes, there are precedents for this right now, but that does not make them more correct. _2_2_. _K_e_r_n_e_l _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _P_a_u_l _R_i_c_h_a_r_d_s and Jrg Wunsch FreeBSD Handbook 440 _2_2_._1 _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _a _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_r_a_s_h _D_u_m_p _w_i_t_h _K_G_D_B Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use an alternate dump device (in the config kernel line), or you can specify an alternate using the dumpon(8) command. The best way to use dumpon(8) is to set the dumpdev variable in /etc/rc.conf. Typ ically you want to specify one of the swap devices specified in /etc/fstab. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example, are currently not supported. Config your kernel using config -g. See _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Use the dumpon(8) command to tell the kernel where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after configuring the partition in question as swap space via swapon(8)). This is normally arranged via /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc. Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the `dump' clause in the `config' line of your kernel config file. This is deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a kernel that crashes during booting. NNoottee:: In the following, the term `kgdb' refers to gdb run in `kernel debug mode'. This can be accomplished by either starting the gdb with the option -k, or by linking and starting it under the name kgdb. This is not being done by default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in further releases. When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say kernel.debug, and then run strip -d on the original. Install the original as normal. You may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted. If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into single user state using the -s flag at the boot prompt, and then perform the following steps: fsck -p mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for /var/crash is writable savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash exit # ...to multi-user This instructs savecore(8) to use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols differ. Now, after a crash dump, go to /sys/compile/WHATEVER and run kgdb. From kgdb do: symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0 FreeBSD Handbook 441 core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0 and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like you can for any other program. Here is a script log of a kgdb session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for refer ence. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the develop ment of the pcvt console driver. 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:uriah # cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:uriah # kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000 6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where 10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767) 11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop () 16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open () 26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\ 31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb) list 42:398 43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON; FreeBSD Handbook 442 44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) 47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else 49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816 57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up 62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open () 67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673) 73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval); 74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up. 76:(kgdb) quit 77:uriah # exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri Dec 30 23:18:04 1994 Comments to the above script: line 6: This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the panic comment ``because you said to!'', and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though. line 20: This is the location of function trap() in the stack trace. line 36: Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not have a new core dump handy , FreeBSD Handbook 443 my kernel has not panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a high probability that either the pointer access for ``tp'' was messed up, or the array access was out of bounds. line 52: The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid address. line 56: However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code: tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of the console device here, which must be a rather small integer number.) _2_2_._1_._1 _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _a _c_r_a_s_h _d_u_m_p _w_i_t_h _D_D_D Examining a kernel crash dump with a graphical debugger like ddd is also possi ble. Add the option -k to the ddd command line you would use normally. For example: ddd -k /var/crash/kernel.0 /var/crash/vmcore.0 You should then be able to go about looking at the crash dump using DDD's graphical interface. _2_2_._2 _P_o_s_t_-_m_o_r_t_e_m _A_n_a_l_y_s_i_s _o_f _a _D_u_m_p What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it, and it is therefore not compiled using config -g? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic! Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on the options you have to specify in order to do this. Go to your kernel compile directory, and edit the line containing COPT FLAGS?=-O. Add the -g option there (but _d_o _n_o_t change anything on the level of optimization). If you do already know roughly the probable location of the failing piece of code (e.g., the pcvt driver in the example above), remove all the object files for this code. Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be some other object files rebuild, for example trap.o. With a bit of luck, the added -g option will not change any thing for the generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at least ver ify the old and new sizes with the size(1) command. If there is a mismatch, you probably need to give up here. Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the kgdb session until you know enough. FreeBSD Handbook 444 All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most cases. _2_2_._3 _O_n_-_l_i_n_e _K_e_r_n_e_l _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _U_s_i_n_g _D_D_B While kgdb as an offline debugger provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpoint ing and single-stepping kernel code. If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting breakpoints, single- steping kernel functions, examining and changing kernel variables, etc. How ever, it cannot access kernel source files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full debug information like kgdb. To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line options DDB to your config file, and rebuild. (See _K_e_r_n_e_l _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks, your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols automagi cally.) Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag -d right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device prob ing. Hence you can even debug the device probe/attach functions. The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the console line to enter DDB (``options BREAK_TO_DEBUG GER'' in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example when pulling the cable. The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended. The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb commands. The first thing you prob ably need to do is to set a breakpoint: b function-name b address Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters a-f need to be preceded with 0x (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed, for example: function-name + 0x103. To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type FreeBSD Handbook 445 c To get a stack trace, use trace Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use for you. If you want to remove a breakpoint, use del del address-expression The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be obtained from show b To single-step the kernel, try s This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until the match ing return statement is reached by n NNoottee:: this is different from gdb's `next' statement; it is like gdb's `finish'. To examine data from memory, use (for example): x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10 x/s stringbuf for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string dis play. The number after the comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply use x ,10 Similarly, use FreeBSD Handbook 446 x/ia foofunc,10 to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of foofunc, and display them along with their offset from the beginning of foofunc. To modify memory, use the write command: w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0 The command modifier (b/h/w) specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive memory locations. If you need to know the current registers, use show reg Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g. p $eax and modify it by set $eax new-value Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply say call func(arg1, arg2, ...) The return value will be printed. For a ps(1) style summary of all running processes, use ps Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot your system: call diediedie() This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command usually must be followed by another `continue' statement. There is now an alias for this: `panic'. call boot(0) FreeBSD Handbook 447 might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system, sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the ker nel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown. call cpu_reset() is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the Big Red Button. If you need a short command summary, simply type help However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the ddb(4) manual page ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the on- line manual while single-stepping the kernel. _2_2_._4 _O_n_-_l_i_n_e _K_e_r_n_e_l _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _U_s_i_n_g _R_e_m_o_t_e _G_D_B This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it's actually a very neat one. GDB has already supported _r_e_m_o_t_e _d_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the debug ging information). You should configure the kernel in question with config -g, include _D_D_B into the configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with strip -x, and boot it using the -d boot option. Connect the first serial line of the target machine to any serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb: % gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial port is being used) by: (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0 Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even starting FreeBSD Handbook 448 the device probe), type: Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db> gdb DDB will respond with: Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode Every time you type ``gdb'', the mode will be toggled between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap immediately, simply type ``s'' (step). Your hosting GDB will now gain control over the target kernel: Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger") at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs window) etc. Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM with debugging symbols: # cd /usr/src/lkm/linux # make clean; make COPTS=-g Then install this version of the module on the target machine, load it and use modstat to find out where it was loaded: # linux # modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1 linux_mod Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module code was relocated to. Use the add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the debugger about the module: (kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o 0xf5109020 add symbol table from file "/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y or n) y (kgdb) You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM. _2_2_._5 _D_e_b_u_g_g_i_n_g _a _C_o_n_s_o_l_e _D_r_i_v_e_r Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by specifying --hh at the Boot: FreeBSD Handbook 449 prompt), and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console driver, of course also on a serial console. _2_3_. _L_i_n_u_x _E_m_u_l_a_t_i_o_n _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _B_r_i_a_n _N_. _H_a_n_d_y and Rich Murphey _2_3_._1 _H_o_w _t_o _I_n_s_t_a_l_l _t_h_e _L_i_n_u_x _E_m_u_l_a_t_o_r Linux emulation in FreeBSD has reached a point where it is possible to run a large fraction of Linux binaries in both a.out and ELF format. The linux emu lation in the 2.1-STABLE branch is capable of running Linux DOOM and Mathemat ica; the version present in 2.2.8-RELEASE is vastly more capable and runs all these as well as Quake, Abuse, IDL, netrek for Linux and a whole host of other programs. There are some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported on FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they use the Linux /proc filesystem (which is different from the optional FreeBSD /proc filesys tem) or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. Depending on which version of FreeBSD you are running, how you get Linux-emula tion up will vary slightly: _2_3_._1_._1 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _L_i_n_u_x _E_m_u_l_a_t_i_o_n _i_n _2_._1_-_S_T_A_B_L_E The GENERIC kernel in 2.1-STABLE is not configured for linux compatibility so you must reconfigure your kernel for it. There are two ways to do this: 1. linking the emulator statically in the kernel itself and 2. configuring your kernel to dynamically load the linux loadable kernel module (LKM). To enable the emulator, add the following to your configuration file (c.f. /sys/i386/conf/LINT): options COMPAT_LINUX If you want to run doom or other applications that need shared memory, also add the following. options SYSVSHM The linux system calls require 4.3BSD system call compatibility. So make sure you have the following. options "COMPAT_43" If you prefer to statically link the emulator in the kernel rather than use the loadable kernel module (LKM), then add options LINUX FreeBSD Handbook 450 Then run config and install the new kernel as described in the _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_ _r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) section. If you decide to use the LKM you must also install the loadable module. A mismatch of versions between the kernel and loadable module can cause the ker nel to crash, so the safest thing to do is to reinstall the LKM when you install the kernel. % cd /usr/src/lkm/linux % make all install Once you have installed the kernel and the LKM, you can invoke `linux' as root to load the LKM. % linux Linux emulator installed Module loaded as ID 0 % To see whether the LKM is loaded, run `modstat'. % modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 3 f0baf000 0018 f0bb4000 1 linux_emulator % You can cause the LKM to be loaded when the system boots in either of two ways. In FreeBSD 2.2.1-RELEASE and 2.1-STABLE enable it in /etc/sysconfig linux=YES by changing it from NO to YES. FreeBSD 2.1-RELEASE and earlier do not have such a line and on those you will need to edit /etc/rc.local to add the follow ing line. linux _2_3_._1_._2 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _L_i_n_u_x _E_m_u_l_a_t_i_o_n _i_n _2_._2_._2_-_R_E_L_E_A_S_E _a_n_d _l_a_t_e_r It is no longer necessary to specify ``options LINUX'' or ``options COM PAT_LINUX''. Linux emulation is done with an LKM (``Loadable Kernel Module'') so it can be installed on the fly without having to reboot. You will need the following things in your startup files, however: 1. In /etc/rc.conf, you need the following line: linux_enable=YES 2. This, in turn, triggers the following action in /etc/rc.i386: FreeBSD Handbook 451 # Start the Linux binary emulation if requested. if [ "X${linux_enable}" = X"YES" ]; then echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1 fi If you want to verify it is running, modstat will do that: % modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f09e6000 001c f09ec010 1 linux_mod % However, there have been reports that this fails on some 2.2-RELEASE and later systems. If for some reason you cannot load the linux LKM, then statically link the emulator in the kernel by adding options LINUX to your kernel config file. Then run config and install the new kernel as described in the _k_e_r_n_e_l _c_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_a_t_i_o_n (section 5., page 80) section. _2_3_._1_._3 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _L_i_n_u_x _R_u_n_t_i_m_e _L_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s _2_3_._1_._3_._1 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _u_s_i_n_g _t_h_e _l_i_n_u_x___l_i_b _p_o_r_t Most linux applications use shared libraries, so you are still not done until you install the shared libraries. It is possible to do this by hand, however, it is vastly simpler to just grab the linux_lib port: % cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_lib % make all install and you should have a working linux emulator. Legend (and the mail archives :-) seems to hold that Linux emulation works best with linux binaries linked against the ZMAGIC libraries; QMAGIC libraries (such as those used in Slackware V2.0) may tend to give the Linuxulator heartburn. Also, expect some programs to complain about incorrect minor versions of the system libraries. In gen eral, however, this does not seem to be a problem. _2_3_._1_._3_._2 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _l_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s _m_a_n_u_a_l_l_y If you do not have the ``ports'' distribution, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a "shadow root" directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist then it will try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. FreeBSD Handbook 452 FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE and later works slightly differently with respect to /com pat/linux: all files, not just libraries, are searched for from the ``shadow root'' /compat/linux. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries with out any extra work. _2_3_._1_._3_._3 _H_o_w _t_o _i_n_s_t_a_l_l _a_d_d_i_t_i_o_n_a_l _s_h_a_r_e_d _l_i_b_r_a_r_i_e_s What if you install the linux_lib port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions: you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system to do the necessary installation steps). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Example: you have just ftp'ed the Linux binary of Doom. Put it on the Linux system you have access to, and check which shared libraries it needs by running `ldd linuxxdoom': % ldd linuxxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29 Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the 'ldd' output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 FreeBSD Handbook 453 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29 Please note that the symbolic link mechanism is _o_n_l_y needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it. _2_3_._1_._3_._4 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _l_d_._s_o _-_- _f_o_r _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _2_._2_-_R_E_L_E_A_S_E _a_n_d _l_a_t_e_r This section applies only to FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE and later. Those running 2.1-STABLE should skip this section. Finally, if you run FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE you must make sure that you have the Linux runtime linker and its config files on your system. You should copy these files from the Linux system to their appropriate place on your FreeBSD system (to the /compat/linux tree): /compat/linux/lib/ld.so /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.config If you do not have access to a Linux system, you should get the extra files you need from various ftp sites. Information on where to look for the various files is appended below. For now, let us assume you know where to get the files. Retrieve the following files (all from the same ftp site to avoid any version mismatches), and install them under /compat/linux (i.e. /foo/bar is installed as /compat/linux/foo/bar): /sbin/ldconfig /usr/bin/ldd /lib/libc.so.x.y.z /lib/ld.so ldconfig and ldd do not necessarily need to be under /compat/linux; you can install them elsewhere in the system too. Just make sure they do not conflict with their FreeBSD counterparts. A good idea would be to install them in /usr/local/bin as ldconfig-linux and ldd-linux. Create the file /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.conf, containing the directories in which the Linux runtime linker should look for shared libs. It is a plain text file, containing a directory name on each line. /lib and /usr/lib are standard, you could add the following: /usr/X11/lib /usr/local/lib When a linux binary opens a library such as /lib/libc.so the emulator maps the name to /compat/linux/lib/libc.so internally. All linux libraries should be FreeBSD Handbook 454 installed under /compat/linux (e.g. /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, /com pat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so, etc.) in order for the emulator to find them. Those running FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE should run the Linux ldconfig program. % cd /compat/linux/lib % /compat/linux/sbin/ldconfig Ldconfig is statically linked, so it does not need any shared libraries to run. It creates the file /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache which contains the names of all the shared libraries and should be rerun to recreate this file whenever you install additional shared libraries. On 2.1-STABLE do not install /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache or run ldconfig; in 2.1-STABLE the syscalls are implemented differently and ldconfig is not needed or used. You should now be set up for Linux binaries which only need a shared libc. You can test this by running the Linux ldd on itself. Supposing that you have it installed as ldd-linux, it should produce something like: % ldd-linux `which ldd-linux` libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 This being done, you are ready to install new Linux binaries. Whenever you install a new Linux program, you should check if it needs shared libraries, and if so, whether you have them installed in the /compat/linux tree. To do this, you run the Linux version ldd on the new program, and watch its output. ldd (see also the manual page for ldd(1)) will print a list of shared libraries that the program depends on, in the form majorname (jumpversion) => fullname. If it prints "not found" instead of fullname it means that you need an extra library. The library needed is shown in majorname and will be of the form libXXXX.so.N. You will need to find a libXXXX.so.N.mm on a Linux ftp site, and install it on your system. The XXXX (name) and N (major revision number) should match; the minor number(s) mm are less important, though it is advised to take the most recent version. _2_3_._1_._4 _I_n_s_t_a_l_l_i_n_g _L_i_n_u_x _E_L_F _b_i_n_a_r_i_e_s ELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of ``branding''. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the follow ing: % ./my-linux-elf-binary ELF binary type not known Abort % To help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF binary from a Linux binary, use the brandelf(1) utility: % brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary FreeBSD Handbook 455 The GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding information into ELF binaries automatically, so you should be needing to do this step increasingly rarely in the future. _2_3_._1_._5 _C_o_n_f_i_g_u_r_i_n_g _t_h_e _h_o_s_t _n_a_m_e _r_e_s_o_l_v_e_r If DNS does not work or you get the messages resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword then you need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on where the order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove `bind,' if you have not configured a name- server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Lastly, those who run 2.1-STABLE need to set an the RESOLV_HOST_CONF environ ment variable so that applications will know how to search the host tables. If you run FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE or later, you can skip this. For the /bin/csh shell use: setenv RESOLV_HOST_CONF /compat/linux/etc/host.conf For /bin/sh use: RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export RESOLV_HOST_CONF _2_3_._1_._6 _F_i_n_d_i_n_g _t_h_e _n_e_c_e_s_s_a_r_y _f_i_l_e_s Note: the information below is valid as of the time this document was written, but certain details such as names of ftp sites, directories and distribution names may have changed by the time you read this. Linux is distributed by several groups that make their own set of binaries that they distribute. Each distribution has its own name, like ``Slackware'' or ``Yggdrasil''. The distributions are available on a lot of ftp sites. Sometimes the files are unpacked, and you can get the individual files you need, but mostly they are stored in distribution sets, usually consisting of subdirecto ries with gzipped tar files in them. The primary ftp sites for the distribu tions are: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/distributions tsx-11.mit.edu:/pub/linux/distributions Some European mirrors: ftp.luth.se:/pub/linux/distributions ftp.demon.co.uk:/pub/unix/linux FreeBSD Handbook 456 src.doc.ic.ac.uk:/packages/linux/distributions For simplicity, let us concentrate on Slackware here. This distribution con sists of a number of subdirectories, containing separate packages. Normally, they are controlled by an install program, but you can retrieve files "by hand" too. First of all, you will need to look in the "contents" subdir of the dis tribution. You will find a lot of small text files here describing the contents of the separate packages. The fastest way to look something up is to retrieve all the files in the contents subdirectory, and grep through them for the file you need. Here is an example of a list of files that you might need, and in which contents-file you will find it by grepping through them: Library Package ld.so ldso ldconfig ldso ldd ldso libc.so.4 shlibs libX11.so.6.0 xf_lib libXt.so.6.0 xf_lib libX11.so.3 oldlibs libXt.so.3 oldlibs So, in this case, you will need the packages ldso, shlibs, xf_lib and oldlibs. In each of the contents-files for these packages, look for a line saying ``PACKAGE LOCATION'', it will tell you on which `disk' the package is, in our case it will tell us in which subdirectory we need to look. For our example, we would find the following locations: Package Location ldso diska2 shlibs diska2 oldlibs diskx6 xf_lib diskx9 The locations called ``diskXX'' refer to the ``slakware/XX'' subdirectories of the distribution, others may be found in the ``contrib'' subdirectory. In this case, we could now retrieve the packages we need by retrieving the following files (relative to the root of the Slackware distribution tree): slakware/a2/ldso.tgz slakware/a2/shlibs.tgz slakware/x6/oldlibs/tgz slakware/x9/xf_lib.tgz Extract the files from these gzipped tarfiles in your /compat/linux directory (possibly omitting or afterwards removing files you do not need), and you are done. SSeeee aallssoo:: ftp.freebsd.org:pub/FreeBSD/2.0.5-RELEASE/xperimnt/linux-emu/README /usr/src/sys/i386/ibcs2/README.iBCS2 FreeBSD Handbook 457 _2_3_._2 _H_o_w _t_o _I_n_s_t_a_l_l _M_a_t_h_e_m_a_t_i_c_a _o_n _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _R_i_c_h _M_u_r_p_h_e_y and Chuck Robey This document shows how to install the Linux binary distribution of Mathematica 2.2 on FreeBSD 2.1. Mathematica supports Linux but not FreeBSD as it stands. So once you have con figured your system for Linux compatibility you have most of what you need to run Mathematica. For those who already have the student edition of Mathematica for DOS the cost of upgrading to the Linux version at the time this was written, March 1996, was $45.00. It can be ordered directly from Wolfram at (217) 398-6500 and paid for by credit card. _2_3_._2_._1 _U_n_p_a_c_k_i_n_g _t_h_e _M_a_t_h_e_m_a_t_i_c_a _d_i_s_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n The binaries are currently distributed by Wolfram on CDROM. The CDROM has about a dozen tar files, each of which is a binary distribution for one of the supported architectures. The one for Linux is named LINUX.TAR. You can, for example, unpack this into /usr/local/Mathematica: % cd /usr/local % mkdir Mathematica % cd Mathematica % tar -xvf /cdrom/LINUX.TAR _2_3_._2_._2 _O_b_t_a_i_n_i_n_g _y_o_u_r _M_a_t_h_e_m_a_t_i_c_a _P_a_s_s_w_o_r_d Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a password from Wolfram that corresponds to your `machine ID.' Once you have installed the linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked the mathematica you can obtain the `machine ID' by running the program `math info' in the Install directory. % cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install % mathinfo LINUX: 'ioctl' fd=5, typ=0x89(), num=0x27 not implemented richc.isdn.bcm.tmc.edu 9845-03452-90255 % So, for example, the `machine ID' of `richc' is `9845-03452-90255'. You can ignore the message about the ioctl that is not implemented. It will not pre vent Mathematica from running in any way and you can safely ignore it, though you will see the message every time you run Mathematica. When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, you will give them the 'machine ID' and they will respond with a corresponding password con sisting of groups of numbers. You need to add them both along with the machine name and license number in your mathpass file. FreeBSD Handbook 458 You can do this by invoking: % cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install % math.install It will ask you to enter your license number and the Wolfram supplied password. If you get them mixed up or for some reason the math.install fails, that is OK; you can simply edit the file 'mathpass' in this same directory to correct the info manually. After getting past the password, math.install will ask you if you accept the install defaults provided, or if you want to use your own. If you are like us and distrust all install programs, you probably want to specify the actual directories. Beware. Although the math.install program asks you to specify directories, it will not create them for you, so you should perhaps have a sec ond window open with another shell so that you can create them before you give them to the install program. Or, if it fails, you can create the directories and then restart the math.install program. The directories we chose to create beforehand and specify to math.install were: /usr/local/Mathematica/bin for binaries /usr/local/Mathematica/man/man1 for man pages /usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11 for the XKeysymb file You can also tell it to use /tmp/math.record for the system record file, where it puts logs of sessions. After this math.install will continue on to unpack ing things and placing everything where it should go. The Mathematica Notebook feature is included separately, as the X Front End, and you have to install it separately. To get the X Front End stuff correctly installed, cd into the /usr/local/Mathematica/FrontEnd directory and execute the ./xfe.install shell script. You will have to tell it where to put things, but you do not have to create any directories because it will use the same directories that had been created for math.install. When it finishes, there should be a new shell script in /usr/local/Mathematica/bin called "mathemat ica". Lastly, you need to modify each of the shell scripts that Mathematica has installed. At the beginning of every shell script in /usr/local/Mathemat ica/bin add the following line: XKEYSYMDB=/usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11/XKeysymDB; export XKEYSYMDB This tells Mathematica were to find its own version of the key mapping file XKeysymDB. Without this you will get pages of error messages about missing key mappings. On 2.1-STABLE you need to add the following as well: RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export RESOLV_HOST_CONF FreeBSD Handbook 459 This tells Mathematica to use the linux version of host.conf. This file has a different syntax from FreeBSD's host.conf, so you will get an error message about /etc/host.conf if you leave this out. You might also want to modify your /etc/manpath.config file to read the new man directory, and you may need to edit your ~/.cshrc file to add /usr/local/Mathe matica/bin to your path. That is about all it takes. With this you should be able to type "mathematica" and get a really slick looking Mathematica Notebook screen up. Mathematica has included the Motif user interfaces, but it is compiled in statically, so you do not need the Motif libraries. Good luck doing this yourself! _2_3_._2_._3 _B_u_g_s The Notebook front end is known to hang sometimes when reading notebook files with an error messages similar to: File .../Untitled-1.mb appears to be broken for OMPR.257.0 We have not found the cause for this, but it only affects the Notebook's X Win dow front end, not the mathematica engine itself. So the command line inter face invoked by 'math' is unaffected by this bug. _2_3_._2_._4 _A_c_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_m_e_n_t_s A well-deserved thanks should go to Sren Schmidt and Peter Wemm who made linux emulation what it is today, and Michael Smith who drove these two guys like dogs to get it to the point where it runs Linux binaries better than linux! :-) _2_4_. _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _I_n_t_e_r_n_a_l_s _2_4_._1 _T_h_e _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _B_o_o_t_i_n_g _P_r_o_c_e_s_s _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _P_o_u_l_-_H_e_n_n_i_n_g _K_a_m_p . v1.1, April 26th. Booting FreeBSD is essentially a three step process: load the kernel, determine the root filesystem and initialize user-land things. This leads to some inter esting possibilities shown below. _2_4_._1_._1 _L_o_a_d_i_n_g _a _k_e_r_n_e_l We presently have three basic mechanisms for loading the kernel as described below: they all pass some information to the kernel to help the kernel decide what to do next. Biosboot Biosboot is our ``bootblocks''. It consists of two files which will be installed in the first 8Kbytes of the floppy or hard-disk slice to be booted from. Biosboot can load a kernel from a FreeBSD filesystem. FreeBSD Handbook 460 Dosboot Dosboot was written by DI. Christian Gusenbauer, and is unfortu nately at this time one of the few pieces of code that will not compile under FreeBSD itself because it is written for Microsoft compilers. Dosboot will boot the kernel from a MS-DOS file or from a FreeBSD filesystem partition on the disk. It attempts to negotiate with the various and strange kinds of memory manglers that lurk in high memory on MS/DOS systems and usually wins them for its case. Netboot Netboot will try to find a supported Ethernet card, and use BOOTP, TFTP and NFS to find a kernel file to boot. _2_4_._1_._2 _D_e_t_e_r_m_i_n_e _t_h_e _r_o_o_t _f_i_l_e_s_y_s_t_e_m Once the kernel is loaded and the boot-code jumps to it, the kernel will ini tialize itself, trying to determine what hardware is present and so on; it then needs to find a root filesystem. Presently we support the following types of root filesystems: UFS This is the most normal type of root filesystem. It can reside on a floppy or on hard disk. MSDOS While this is technically possible, it is not particular useful because of the ``FAT'' filesystem's inability to deal with links, device nodes and other such ``UNIXisms''. MFS This is actually a UFS filesystem which has been compiled into the kernel. That means that the kernel does not really need any hard disks, floppies or other hardware to function. CD9660 This is for using a CD-ROM as root filesystem. NFS This is for using a fileserver as root filesystem, basically making it a diskless machine. _2_4_._1_._3 _I_n_i_t_i_a_l_i_z_e _u_s_e_r_-_l_a_n_d _t_h_i_n_g_s To get the user-land going, the kernel, when it has finished initialization, will create a process with ``pid == 1'' and execute a program on the root filesystem; this program is normally ``/sbin/init''. You can substitute any program for /sbin/init, as long as you keep in mind that: there is no stdin/out/err unless you open it yourself. If you exit, the machine FreeBSD Handbook 461 panics. Signal handling is special for ``pid == 1''. An example of this is the ``/stand/sysinstall'' program on the installation floppy. _2_4_._1_._4 _I_n_t_e_r_e_s_t_i_n_g _c_o_m_b_i_n_a_t_i_o_n_s Boot a kernel with a MFS in it with a special /sbin/init which... A -- Using DOS mounts your C: as /C: Attaches C:/freebsd.fs on /dev/vn0 mounts /dev/vn0 as /rootfs makes symlinks /rootfs/bin -> /bin /rootfs/etc -> /etc /rootfs/sbin -> /sbin (etc...) Now you are running FreeBSD without repartitioning your hard disk... B -- Using NFS NFS mounts your server:~you/FreeBSD as /nfs, chroots to /nfs and executes /sbin/init there Now you are running FreeBSD diskless, even though you do not con trol the NFS server... C -- Start an X-server Now you have an X-terminal, which is better than that dingy X- under-windows-so-slow-you-can-see-what-it-does thing that your boss insist is better than forking out money on hardware. D -- Using a tape Takes a copy of /dev/rwd0 and writes it to a remote tape station or fileserver. Now you finally get that backup you should have made a year ago... E -- Acts as a firewall/web-server/what do I know... This is particularly interesting since you can boot from a write- protected floppy, but still write to your root filesystem... FreeBSD Handbook 462 _2_4_._2 _P_C _M_e_m_o_r_y _U_t_i_l_i_z_a_t_i_o_n _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _J__r_g _W_u_n_s_c_h . 16 Apr 1995. _A _s_h_o_r_t _d_e_s_c_r_i_p_t_i_o_n _o_f _h_o_w _F_r_e_e_B_S_D _u_s_e_s _m_e_m_o_r_y _o_n _t_h_e _i_3_8_6 _p_l_a_t_f_o_r_m The boot sector will be loaded at 0:0x7c00, and relocates itself immediately to 0x7c0:0. (This is nothing magic, just an adjustment for the %cs selector, done by an ljmp.) It then loads the first 15 sectors at 0x10000 (segment BOOTSEG in the biosboot Makefile), and sets up the stack to work below 0x1fff0. After this, it jumps to the entry of boot2 within that code. I.e., it jumps over itself and the (dummy) partition table, and it is going to adjust the %cs selector---we are still in 16-bit mode there. boot2 asks for the boot file, and examines the a.out header. It masks the file entry point (usually 0xf0100000) by 0x00ffffff, and loads the file there. Hence the usual load point is 1 MB (0x00100000). During load, the boot code toggles back and forth between real and protected mode, to use the BIOS in real mode. The boot code itself uses segment selectors 0x18 and 0x20 for %cs and %ds/%es in protected mode, and 0x28 to jump back into real mode. The kernel is finally started with %cs 0x08 and %ds/%es/%ss 0x10, which refer to dummy descriptors covering the entire address space. The kernel will be started at its load point. Since it has been linked for another (high) address, it will have to execute PIC until the page table and page directory stuff is setup properly, at which point paging will be enabled and the kernel will finally run at the address for which it was linked. _C_o_n_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d _b_y _D_a_v_i_d _G_r_e_e_n_m_a_n . 16 Apr 1995. The physical pages immediately following the kernel BSS contain proc0's page directory, page tables, and upages. Some time later when the VM system is ini tialized, the physical memory between 0x1000-0x9ffff and the physical memory after the kernel (text+data+bss+proc0 stuff+other misc) is made available in the form of general VM pages and added to the global free page list. _2_4_._3 _D_M_A_: _W_h_a_t _i_t _I_s _a_n_d _H_o_w _i_t _W_o_r_k_s _C_o_p_y_r_i_g_h_t __1_9_9_5_,_1_9_9_7 _F_r_a_n_k _D_u_r_d_a _I_V , All Rights Reserved. 10 December 1996. Last Update 8 October 1997. Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be moved from one location to another in a computer without intervention from the central proces sor (CPU). FreeBSD Handbook 463 The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between computer architec tures, so this discussion will limit itself to the implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and clones. The PC DMA subsystem is based on the Intel 8237 DMA controller. The 8237 con tains four DMA channels that can be programmed independently and any one of the channels may be active at any moment. These channels are numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with the PC/AT, IBM added a second 8237 chip, and numbered those channels 4, 5, 6 and 7. The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in each transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves 16-bits from two adjacent mem ory locations in each transfer, with the first byte always coming from an even- numbered address. The two controllers are identical components and the differ ence in transfer size is caused by the way the second controller is wired into the system. The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ and -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold Request), HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the bus control signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR (I/O Read), and -IOW (I/O Write). The 8237 DMA is known as a ``fly-by'' DMA controller. This means that the data being moved from one location to another does not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip. Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and a memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory locations. _N_o_t_e_: The 8237 does allow two channels to be connected together to allow memory-to-memory DMA operations in a non-``fly-by'' mode, but nobody in the PC industry uses this scarce resource this way since it is faster to move data between memory locations using the CPU. In the PC architecture, each DMA channel is normally activated only when the hardware that uses a given DMA channel requests a transfer by asserting the DRQ line for that channel. _2_4_._3_._1 _A _S_a_m_p_l_e _D_M_A _t_r_a_n_s_f_e_r Here is an example of the steps that occur to cause and perform a DMA transfer. In this example, the floppy disk controller (FDC) has just read a byte from a diskette and wants the DMA to place it in memory at location 0x00123456. The process begins by the FDC asserting the DRQ2 signal (the DRQ line for DMA chan nel 2) to alert the DMA controller. The DMA controller will note that the DRQ2 signal is asserted. The DMA con troller will then make sure that DMA channel 2 has been programmed and is unmasked (enabled). The DMA controller also makes sure that none of the other DMA channels are active or want to be active and have a higher priority. Once these checks are complete, the DMA asks the CPU to release the bus so that the DMA may use the bus. The DMA requests the bus by asserting the HRQ signal which goes to the CPU. FreeBSD Handbook 464 The CPU detects the HRQ signal, and will complete executing the current instruction. Once the processor has reached a state where it can release the bus, it will. Now all of the signals normally generated by the CPU (-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and a few others) are placed in a tri-stated condition (nei ther high or low) and then the CPU asserts the HLDA signal which tells the DMA controller that it is now in charge of the bus. Depending on the processor, the CPU may be able to execute a few additional instructions now that it no longer has the bus, but the CPU will eventually have to wait when it reaches an instruction that must read something from mem ory that is not in the internal processor cache or pipeline. Now that the DMA ``is in charge'', the DMA activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW output signals, and the address outputs from the DMA are set to 0x3456, which will be used to direct the byte that is about to transferred to a spe cific memory location. The DMA will then let the device that requested the DMA transfer know that the transfer is commencing. This is done by asserting the -DACK signal, or in the case of the floppy disk controller, -DACK2 is asserted. The floppy disk controller is now responsible for placing the byte to be trans ferred on the bus Data lines. Unless the floppy controller needs more time to get the data byte on the bus (and if the peripheral does need more time it alerts the DMA via the READY signal), the DMA will wait one DMA clock, and then de-assert the -MEMW and -IOR signals so that the memory will latch and store the byte that was on the bus, and the FDC will know that the byte has been transferred. Since the DMA cycle only transfers a single byte at a time, the FDC now drops the DRQ2 signal, so the DMA knows that it is no longer needed. The DMA will de-assert the -DACK2 signal, so that the FDC knows it must stop placing data on the bus. The DMA will now check to see if any of the other DMA channels have any work to do. If none of the channels have their DRQ lines asserted, the DMA controller has completed its work and will now tri-state the -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address signals. Finally, the DMA will de-assert the HRQ signal. The CPU sees this, and de- asserts the HOLDA signal. Now the CPU activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address lines, and it resumes executing instructions and accessing main memory and the peripherals. For a typical floppy disk sector, the above process is repeated 512 times, once for each byte. Each time a byte is transferred, the address register in the DMA is incremented and the counter in the DMA that shows how many bytes are to be transferred is decremented. When the counter reaches zero, the DMA asserts the EOP signal, which indicates that the counter has reached zero and no more data will be transferred until the DMA controller is reprogrammed by the CPU. This event is also called the Terminal Count (TC). There is only one EOP signal, and since only DMA channel can be active at any instant, the DMA channel that is currently active must be FreeBSD Handbook 465 the DMA channel that just completed its task. If a peripheral wants to generate an interrupt when the transfer of a buffer is complete, it can test for its -DACKn signal and the EOP signal both being asserted at the same time. When that happens, it means the DMA will not trans fer any more information for that peripheral without intervention by the CPU. The peripheral can then assert one of the interrupt signals to get the proces sors' attention. In the PC architecture, the DMA chip itself is not capable of generating an interrupt. The peripheral and its associated hardware is respon sible for generating any interrupt that occurs. Subsequently, it is possible to have a peripheral that uses DMA but does not use interrupts. It is important to understand that although the CPU always releases the bus to the DMA when the DMA makes the request, this action is invisible to both appli cations and the operating systems, except for slight changes in the amount of time the processor takes to execute instructions when the DMA is active. Sub sequently, the processor must poll the peripheral, poll the registers in the DMA chip, or receive an interrupt from the peripheral to know for certain when a DMA transfer has completed. _2_4_._3_._2 _D_M_A _P_a_g_e _R_e_g_i_s_t_e_r_s _a_n_d _1_6_M_e_g _a_d_d_r_e_s_s _s_p_a_c_e _l_i_m_i_t_a_t_i_o_n_s You may have noticed earlier that instead of the DMA setting the address lines to 0x00123456 as we said earlier, the DMA only set 0x3456. The reason for this takes a bit of explaining. When the original IBM PC was designed, IBM elected to use both DMA and inter rupt controller chips that were designed for use with the 8085, an 8-bit pro cessor with an address space of 16 bits (64K). Since the IBM PC supported more than 64K of memory, something had to be done to allow the DMA to read or write memory locations above the 64K mark. What IBM did to solve this problem was to add an external data latch for each DMA channel that holds the upper bits of the address to be read to or written from. Whenever a DMA channel is active, the contents of that latch are written to the address bus and kept there until the DMA operation for the channel ends. IBM called these latches ``Page Regis ters''. So for our example above, the DMA would put the 0x3456 part of the address on the bus, and the Page Register for DMA channel 2 would put 0x0012xxxx on the bus. Together, these two values form the complete address in memory that is to be accessed. Because the Page Register latch is independent of the DMA chip, the area of memory to be read or written must not span a 64K physical boundary. For exam ple, if the DMA accesses memory location 0xffff, after that transfer the DMA will then increment the address register and the DMA will access the next byte at location 0x0000, not 0x10000. The results of letting this happen are proba bly not intended. _N_o_t_e_: ``Physical'' 64K boundaries should not be confused with 8086-mode 64K ``Segments'', which are created by mathematically adding a segment register with an offset register. Page Registers have no address overlap and are mathematically OR-ed together. FreeBSD Handbook 466 To further complicate matters, the external DMA address latches on the PC/AT hold only eight bits, so that gives us 8+16=24 bits, which means that the DMA can only point at memory locations between 0 and 16Meg. For newer computers that allow more than 16Meg of memory, the standard PC-compatible DMA cannot access memory locations above 16Meg. To get around this restriction, operating systems will reserve a RAM buffer in an area below 16Meg that also does not span a physical 64K boundary. Then the DMA will be programmed to transfer data from the peripheral and into that buffer. Once the DMA has moved the data into this buffer, the operating system will then copy the data from the buffer to the address where the data is really supposed to be stored. When writing data from an address above 16Meg to a DMA-based peripheral, the data must be first copied from where it resides into a buffer located below 16Meg, and then the DMA can copy the data from the buffer to the hardware. In FreeBSD, these reserved buffers are called ``Bounce Buffers''. In the MS-DOS world, they are sometimes called ``Smart Buffers''. _N_o_t_e_: A new implementation of the 8237, called the 82374, allows 16 bits of page register to be specified, allows access to the entire 32 bit address space, without the use of bounce buffers. _2_4_._3_._3 _D_M_A _O_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _M_o_d_e_s _a_n_d _S_e_t_t_i_n_g_s The 8237 DMA can be operated in several modes. The main ones are: Single A single byte (or word) is transferred. The DMA must release and re-acquire the bus for each additional byte. This is commonly-used by devices that cannot transfer the entire block of data immedi ately. The peripheral will request the DMA each time it is ready for another transfer. The standard PC-compatible floppy disk controller (NEC 765) only has a one-byte buffer, so it uses this mode. Block/Demand Once the DMA acquires the system bus, an entire block of data is transferred, up to a maximum of 64K. If the peripheral needs addi tional time, it can assert the READY signal to suspend the transfer briefly. READY should not be used excessively, and for slow peripheral transfers, the Single Transfer Mode should be used instead. The difference between Block and Demand is that once a Block trans fer is started, it runs until the transfer count reaches zero. DRQ only needs to be asserted until -DACK is asserted. Demand Mode will transfer one more bytes until DRQ is de-asserted, at which point the DMA suspends the transfer and releases the bus back to the CPU. When DRQ is asserted later, the transfer resumes where it was suspended. Older hard disk controllers used Demand Mode until CPU speeds FreeBSD Handbook 467 increased to the point that it was more efficient to transfer the data using the CPU, particularly if the memory locations used in the transfer were above the 16Meg mark. Cascade This mechanism allows a DMA channel to request the bus, but then the attached peripheral device is responsible for placing the addressing information on the bus instead of the DMA. This is also used to implement a technique known as ``Bus Mastering''. When a DMA channel in Cascade Mode receives control of the bus, the DMA does not place addresses and I/O control signals on the bus like the DMA normally does when it is active. Instead, the DMA only asserts the -DACK signal for the active DMA channel. At this point it is up to the peripheral connected to that DMA channel to provide address and bus control signals. The peripheral has complete control over the system bus, and can do reads and/or writes to any address below 16Meg. When the peripheral is finished with the bus, it de-asserts the DRQ line, and the DMA controller can then return control to the CPU or to some other DMA channel. Cascade Mode can be used to chain multiple DMA controllers together, and this is exactly what DMA Channel 4 is used for in the PC architecture. When a peripheral requests the bus on DMA chan nels 0, 1, 2 or 3, the slave DMA controller asserts HLDREQ, but this wire is actually connected to DRQ4 on the primary DMA con troller instead of to the CPU. The primary DMA controller, think ing it has work to do on Channel 4, requests the bus from the CPU using HLDREQ signal. Once the CPU grants the bus to the primary DMA controller, -DACK4 is asserted, and that wire is actually con nected to the HLDA signal on the slave DMA controller. The slave DMA controller then transfers data for the DMA channel that requested it (0, 1, 2 or 3), or the slave DMA may grant the bus to a peripheral that wants to perform its own bus-mastering, such as a SCSI controller. Because of this wiring arrangement, only DMA channels 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 are usable with peripherals on PC/AT systems. _N_o_t_e_: DMA channel 0 was reserved for refresh operations in early IBM PC computers, but is generally available for use by peripherals in modern systems. When a peripheral is performing Bus Mastering, it is important that the peripheral transmit data to or from memory constantly while it holds the system bus. If the peripheral cannot do this, it must release the bus frequently so that the system can perform refresh operations on main memory. The Dynamic RAM used in all PCs for main memory must be accessed frequently to keep the bits stored in the components "charged". Dynamic RAM essentially consists of millions of capacitors with each one holding one bit of data. These capacitors are charged FreeBSD Handbook 468 with power to represent a "1" or drained to represent a "0". Because all capacitors leak, power must be added at regular inter vals to keep the "1" values intact. The RAM chips actually handle the task of pumping power back into all of the appropriate loca tions in RAM, but they must be told when to do it by the rest of the computer so that the refresh activity won't interfere with the computer wanting to access RAM normally. If the computer is unable to refresh memory, the contents of memory will become corrupted in just a few milliseconds. Since memory read and write cycles ``count'' as refresh cycles (a dynamic RAM refresh cycle is actually an incomplete memory read cycle), as long as the peripheral controller continues reading or writing data to sequential memory locations, that action will refresh all of memory. Bus-mastering is found in some SCSI host interfaces and other high- performance peripheral controllers. Autoinitialize This mode causes the DMA to perform Byte, Block or Demand trans fers, but when the DMA transfer counter reaches zero, the counter and address are set back to where they were when the DMA channel was originally programmed. This means that as long as the periph eral requests transfers, they will be granted. It is up to the CPU to move new data into the fixed buffer ahead of where the DMA is about to transfer it when doing output operations, and read new data out of the buffer behind where the DMA is writing when doing input operations. This technique is frequently used on audio devices that have small or no hardware ``sample'' buffers. There is additional CPU over head to manage this ``circular'' buffer, but in some cases this may be the only way to eliminate the latency that occurs when the DMA counter reaches zero and the DMA stops transfers until it is repro grammed. _2_4_._3_._4 _P_r_o_g_r_a_m_m_i_n_g _t_h_e _D_M_A The DMA channel that is to be programmed should always be ``masked'' before loading any settings. This is because the hardware might unexpectedly assert the DRQ for that channel, and the DMA might respond, even though not all of the parameters have been loaded or updated. Once masked, the host must specify the direction of the transfer (memory-to-I/O or I/O-to-memory), what mode of DMA operation is to be used for the transfer (Single, Block, Demand, Cascade, etc), and finally the address and length of the transfer are loaded. The length that is loaded is one less than the amount you expect the DMA to transfer. The LSB and MSB of the address and length are written to the same 8-bit I/O port, so another port must be written to first to guarantee that the DMA accepts the first byte as the LSB and the second byte as the MSB of the length and address. Then, be sure to update the Page Register, which is external to the DMA and is FreeBSD Handbook 469 accessed through a different set of I/O ports. Once all the settings are ready, the DMA channel can be un-masked. That DMA channel is now considered to be ``armed'', and will respond when the DRQ line for that channel is asserted. Refer to a hardware data book for precise programming details for the 8237. You will also need to refer to the I/O port map for the PC system, which describes where the DMA and Page Register ports are located. A complete port map table is located below. _2_4_._3_._5 _D_M_A _P_o_r_t _M_a_p All systems based on the IBM-PC and PC/AT have the DMA hardware located at the same I/O ports. The complete list is provided below. Ports assigned to DMA Controller #2 are undefined on non-AT designs. _2_4_._3_._5_._1 _0_x_0_0 _- _0_x_1_f _D_M_A _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r _#_1 _(_C_h_a_n_n_e_l_s _0_, _1_, _2 _a_n_d _3_) DMA Address and Count Registers 0x00 write Channel 0 starting address 0x00 read Channel 0 current address 0x01 write Channel 0 starting word count 0x01 read Channel 0 remaining word count 0x02 write Channel 1 starting address 0x02 read Channel 1 current address 0x03 write Channel 1 starting word count 0x03 read Channel 1 remaining word count 0x04 write Channel 2 starting address 0x04 read Channel 2 current address 0x05 write Channel 2 starting word count 0x05 read Channel 2 remaining word count 0x06 write Channel 3 starting address 0x06 read Channel 3 current address 0x07 write Channel 3 starting word count 0x07 read Channel 3 remaining word count DMA Command Registers FreeBSD Handbook 470 0x08 write Command Register 0x08 read Status Register 0x09 write Request Register 0x09 read - 0x0a write Single Mask Register Bit 0x0a read - 0x0b write Mode Register 0x0b read - 0x0c write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0x0c read - 0x0d write Master Clear/Reset 0x0d read Temporary Register (not available on newer versions) 0x0e write Clear Mask Register 0x0e read - 0x0f write Write All Mask Register Bits 0x0f read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) _2_4_._3_._5_._2 _0_x_c_0 _- _0_x_d_f _D_M_A _C_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_e_r _#_2 _(_C_h_a_n_n_e_l_s _4_, _5_, _6 _a_n_d _7_) DMA Address and Count Registers 0xc0 write Channel 4 starting address 0xc0 read Channel 4 current address 0xc2 write Channel 4 starting word count 0xc2 read Channel 4 remaining word count 0xc4 write Channel 5 starting address 0xc4 read Channel 5 current address 0xc6 write Channel 5 starting word count 0xc6 read Channel 5 remaining word count 0xc8 write Channel 6 starting address 0xc8 read Channel 6 current address 0xca write Channel 6 starting word count 0xca read Channel 6 remaining word count 0xcc write Channel 7 starting address 0xcc read Channel 7 current address 0xce write Channel 7 starting word count 0xce read Channel 7 remaining word count DMA Command Registers FreeBSD Handbook 471 0xd0 write Command Register 0xd0 read Status Register 0xd2 write Request Register 0xd2 read - 0xd4 write Single Mask Register Bit 0xd4 read - 0xd6 write Mode Register 0xd6 read - 0xd8 write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0xd8 read - 0xda write Master Clear/Reset 0xda read Temporary Register (not present in Intel 82374) 0xdc write Clear Mask Register 0xdc read - 0xde write Write All Mask Register Bits 0xdf read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) _2_4_._3_._5_._3 _0_x_8_0 _- _0_x_9_f _D_M_A _